Community canning centers / [prepared by the Production and Marketing Administration, United States Department of Agriculture]

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Community

CANNING

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Miscellaneous Publication No. 544

Production and Marketing Administration

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Historic, archived document

Do not assume content reflects current
scientific knowledge, policies, or practices.

Acknowledgments

Acknowledgment is made to the following persons for their assistance in the
preparation of this publication:

Pearl Lafitte, Home Demonstration Agent, Duval County, Fla., for reviewing and
expanding the section on plant management.

Charles M. Merrill, Research Laboratory, National Canners Association, Wash-
ington, D. C, for suggestions on canning practices and for reviewing the tables on
time and temperature for processing acid and nonacid foods.

R. E. Naugher and D. T. MacDonald, Specialists in Agricultural Education,
United States Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Washington, D. C, for
assistance in the preparation of the section on instructing families in canning prac-
tices.

Thomas M. Offutt, Washington Gas Light Company, Washington, D. C, for
reviewing the section on small canning centers operated with gas burners.

Members of the Research Department, American Can Co., New York, N. Y., for
reviewing the section on can seam tests and for supplying photographs and drawings.

Walter F. Stutz, Chief of Engineering Instruments and Mechanical Appliances
Section, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C, for assistance in pre-
paring the text and photographs for the section on testing pressure gages.

Charles T. Townsend, Laboratory for Research in the Canning Industry, San
Francisco, Calif., for his many helpful suggestions.

Dr. E. P. Walls, Food Technologist in Charge of Canning Studies, Department of
Horticulture, University of Maryland, for general information on canning practices,
with particular reference to lye peeling.

COMMUNITY CANNING
CENTERS

Miscellaneous Publication No. 544

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Production and Marketing Administration

UNITED STATES

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON : 1946

Preface

Community canning centers have found a definite place in the life of many
communities. That they fill a need is shown by the fact that there has been a con-
tinual increase in their number and an expansion of the facilities of those already
established. These centers serve many useful purposes. They prevent waste of
locally abundant foods and improve the nutritional level of lower income groups by
preserving home-grown foods for use at a time when fresh produce is relatively high
in price. Schools have found that by using these centers to can produce for their
school-lunch programs they have been able to provide better lunches without increas-
ing their cost to the children.

As a result of the development of interest in community canning centers many
requests for information on their establishment and operation have been received.
This publication, a revision of Miscellaneous Publication No. 544, is intended to
provide answers to these requests. The information contained in the April 1944
issue of Miscellaneous Publication No. 544 and the supplements released in August
and September 1944 have been incorporated in this edition with slight revisions. In
response to numerous demands, a section has been added on the establishment and
operation of small canning centers that use gas burners.

The instructions given are based on experience acquired in the organization and
operation of successful food-preservation centers and on information obtained from
authorities in the field of canning. The canning techniques presented are for approved
steam-pressure and water-bath methods and are based on ungraded products packed in
a clean, sanitary manner. Since it was necessary to prepare this material for use on a
national basis it may be found that the techniques here recommended need slight
modification in some cases in order to conform with State laws on food, safety, health,
and sanitation.

Although the scope of this publication has been limited to canning, many
communities have found it desirable to provide facilities for other methods of preserva-
tion, such as quick freezing, dehydrating, salting, and brining. Much of the equip-
ment used for the preparation of foods for canning may be used for the preparation of
foods to be preserved by any of these methods, thus effecting a saving in space and
cost of equipment.

Washington, D. C. Issued April 1944

Revised March 1946

CONTENTS

Page

Getting the community organized 1

Plan for financing 1

Selecting a supervisor 2

Deciding on the size and type of cannery 2

Selecting the site and building 2

Making the floor plans 5

Steam-operated canning centers 7

Boilers 7

Water-feed system 8

Location 10

Boiler fittings and steam and water lines 10

Boiler operation 11

Retorts 12

Type and number of retorts 12

Retort equipment 13

Mercury-in-glass thermometer 13

Pressure gage 13

Vent and bleeder 13

Safety valve 13

Retort inset crate 13

Installation of retorts • 13

Care of retorts 16

Retort operation 16

Venting retorts 17

Processing 18

Pressure cooling of cans in retorts of 106 No. 3 can
capacity or larger (pressure maintained with

steam) 18

Testing pressure gages 20

Open-process tanks 24

Cooling tank 24

Chain hoist and track 24

Steam-jacketed kettles 25

Steam cooking coil 25

Sealers 26

Operation of sealers (double seamers) 28

Examination of the can seam 29

Adjusting sealers 31

Exhaust boxes 32

Wash sinks 32

Blanch and scald tanks 33

Cold-dip tanks : 34

Tanks for the medium 34

Preparation and fill tables 35

Meat-cutting tables 35

Other equipment 35

Cutting boards -. . 35

Blanching baskets 35

Can trays .- 35

Canning thermometers 35

Dishpans 35

Cutlery 36

Can-scam-inspection equipment 37

Can-straightening device : 37

Gloves 37

Utility trucks 37

Garbage cans 37

Steam aad water hose 37

Fire extinguishers 37

Page
Other equipment — Continued

Tools for adjusting and repairing equipment 37

Replacement parts 38

Cleaning equipment ■ 38

Containers generally used 38

Size of cans 38

Type of finish 38

Purchase of cans 38

Small canning centers operated with gas burners 39

Operation of gas-heated retorts 42

Operation of pressure canners 42

Care of pressure canners 44

Care of idle equipment 45

Sanitation 45

Safety 45

Management 46

Personnel — employed and volunteer 46

Protection for employees and patrons 46

Getting information to the public 46

Education and training for patrons 47

Planning food for the family 47

Nutritional requirements of the family 48

Quantity of each food to be canned 48

Food-production possibilities 49

Producing food for family use . 49

Instructing families in canning practices 49

Patron's agreement 50

Appointments and scheduling 50

Canning procedure 52

Receiving produce 52

Preparation of produce 52

Grading 52

Sorting 52

Soaking 52

Washing 52

Cutting, breaking, peeling 52

Discoloration 53

Scalding 53

Lye peeling 53

Steaming 53 '

Pulping 53

Reducing ; 54

Blanching 54

Preparation of containers 54

Filling of cans 54

Checking weight of can contents 55

Allowing for head space 55

Adding canning medium 55

Exhausting 55

Center-can closing temperature 55

Vacuum . . . . : 56

Initial temperature 56

Sealing . 57

Marking cans 57

Stacking cans 57

Processing 57

Water-bath processing 58

Steam-pressure processing 58

111

Canning procedure — Continued Page

Cooling 59

Storage 59

Spoilage 59

Flat-sour 59

Botulinus 59

Swells 60

Hydrogen springers 60

Stack burn 60

Foreign flavors 60

Disposal of spoiled foods 60

Canning instructions 60

Canning fruits, tomatoes, and other acid foods 61

Apple butter 61

Apples in sirup 61

Applesauce : 62

Apricots 62

Berries 63

Cherries, sour 63

Cherries, sweet 63

Fruit juices 64

Grapefruit 64

Peaches 63

Pears 65

Pineapple 66

Plums 66

Sauerkraut 66

Tomatoes 67

Tomato juice 68

Canning instructions — Continued Page

Canning nonacid vegetables 68

Asparagus 69

Beans, green and wax 70

Beans, green lima 71

Beets 71

Carrots 72

Corn, cream-style 72

Corn, whole-grain 73

Greens 74

Mixed vegetables for soup or salad 74

Okra 75

Peas, green 75

Pumpkin and squash 75

Summer squash 76

Sweetpotatoes in sirup 76

Sweetpotatoes, solid pack 77

Canning meat 78

Roasts, steaks, and stew meat 79

Ground meat 80

Heart and tongue 80

Corned beef 81

Chicken 81

Chicken giblets 82

Soup stock 83

Partial list of manufacturers of canning equipment and sup-
plies 83

Literature cited 85

Additional references 85

IV

Community Canning Centers

Prepared by the Production and Marketing Administration,
United States Department of Agriculture

Getting the community organized

Community canning centers will not just happen.
They must be planned and arranged for well in ad-
vance of the season in -which they are needed. Plan-
ning soundly and getting the center operating on a
business basis from the beginning are necessary if the
center is to be successful over a period that justifies
the expenditure of money and effort involved.

Successful canning centers usually are the result of
group action spurred on by some individual who sees
the need for providing facilities for preserving food
and has the energy to do something about it. It
doesn't matter who this is — an energetic homemaker,
a home demonstration agent, a businessman growing
his first garden, a teacher of vocational agriculture or
home economics, or a civic leader.

Such a leader will round up a group of interested
persons to determine the need, the interest, the terri-
tory to be served by the prospective center, whether
all families or only a limited number in the territory
are to be included among patrons of the center, and
•what canning equipment is already on hand in the
community. Many communities include school lunch
and institutional needs in the initial survey, as such a
tie-in is desirable in affording permanency to the
program.

A satisfactory method of getting much of the infor-
mation needed in the survey is to send circulars or
questionnaires to families in the community. Such
questionnaires will determine whether or not a family
is interested, the kind and amount of food they would
like to put up, and whether this food will be home-
produced or bought. A more accurate survey can be
had if food budgets recommended by State depart-
ments of agriculture are used as guides for setting up
information to accompany the questionnaires.

Where the initial survey reflects a real need and
interest in establishing a canning center, the most
effective way of getting the matter in the hands of
community members is to have a public meeting. At
this meeting a working committee should be elected
and given the authority to get the program organized
and operating. This committee will then need to
report only occasionally to the whole group of persons
participating in the program.

On the personnel of this committee will depend the
effectiveness of the program. Its membership should
include representative citizens who can head subcom-
mittees to handle specific problems involved, thus

building up an effective organization. It is well to
include on the committee a businessman, a home
economist, a teacher of vocational agriculture, an
engineer, a newspaper publisher, a health officer or
physician, members of civic and service clubs, school
boards, and local government. Subcommittees may
need to be organized to give direction and supervision
on (1) financing, (2) housing and equipment, (3)
public relations and arbitration, (4) operation, and

(5) health and sanitation of the plant. By dividing
the direction of the program in this way the responsi-
bility is left to a group rather than to an individual.

Until the plant has been established and is ready to
operate, the working committee will be busy making
such decisions as the following: (1) How to finance
the cost of the center, (2) selection of a supervisor or
manager, (3) size and type of preserving units to be
installed, (4) selection of site and building, (5) de-
velopment of floor plans for installation of equipment,

(6) purchase and installation of equipment and
supplies.

With the supervisor, the working committee will
determine what the policies of the plant will be on
agreements to be made with patrons, the type of train-
ing that patrons will be given, the number of persons
required to operate the plant, and the means of inform-
ing the public of the plant's progress. As the season
gets under way, the supervisor will need the assistance
of the committee to solve operating problems and to
make improvements or changes in the canning center
from time to time.

Plan for Financing

A community cannery must have initial funds for
equipment and supplies, housing and utilities, neces-
sary labor and supervision, and for protective insurance
for workers. Such funds may be obtained through
popular subscription or a bond issue in the community.
Often, however, the local board of commissioners,
welfare board, school board, farmers' cooperatives,
chamber of commerce, or civic and fraternal organiza-
tions assume these initial costs. Many communities
have found it advisable to incorporate the canning
center on a nonprofit basis.

In some States, legislatures have appropriated funds
to assist in establishing and operating food-preserva-
tion centers. Other sources of support for the com-
munity cannery are contributions by civic-minded

individuals or groups. Committees should investi-
gate all possibilities for financial assistance. They
will get helpful information on available Government
aid from the State agricultural extension service or the
State department for vocational education.

To pay the overhead costs of the center, the usual
method is to collect a small service charge for each
can of food processed. This cost is based on the
price of the can, plus a small charge for services and
utilities. If the plant is operated at capacity, a fund
may accrue from this source to pay off indebtedness
as well as to cover costs of replacements and repairs.
Capacity production is more readily assured in those
canneries extending their facilities to school-lunch
programs, institutions, and welfare needs, as well as
to families in the community. Sometimes a toll in
canned products is collected from patrons as part of
the service charge; such products being donated to
school-lunch and other tax-supported programs.

If the committee maintains central control of pur-
chases for the seasonal supply of cans and fuel, a real
saving in overhead costs can be realized. Containers
may be purchased in cooperation with other com-
munities if the quantities required do not make up a
carload lot. (See Purchase of Cans, p. 38.)

Selecting a supervisor

Every canning center should have, if possible, a
paid supervisor who is on the job all the time that
the center is in operation. In large canning centers
such a supervisor is essential.

The supervisor will have the responsibility of see-
ing that patrons, employees, and volunteer workers
are well trained in proper methods of preparing and
processing foods and in operating the equipment.
She will be responsible for making appointments,
scheduling produce, scheduling and supervising em-
ployees, determining and ordering supplies needed,
and maintaining the necessary records for efficient
operation. She will also assume responsibility for
the care, replacement, and repair of equipment.

From time to time, she may present to the com-
mittee plans for improved operation, such as re-
arrangement of equipment for a better flow of work, or
for additional equipment required to improve or
expand operation.

Qualified supervisors are likely to be found among
home demonstration agents, teachers of home eco-
nomics or vocational agriculture, commercial canners,
and canners trained in the former WPA program.
If possible, it is well for the supervisor to have had
actual experience in operating a canning center. In
addition to being able to direct and train others, the
supervisor should possess good judgment and ability
to meet emergencies.

State training courses, conducted by groups or
agencies directing or assisting community food-
preservation programs, should be attended by the
supervisor selected. Other training experiences, such
as visiting a commercial cannery, may prove helpful

in planning and scheduling work and evaluating the
plant in terms of improved efficiency.

Where a State agency provides the services of a
State-wide technical supervisor and a bacteriologist,
communities should request their assistance as
necessary.

Deciding on the size
and type of cannery

The size of the cannery will be determined by the
quantity of produce that will need to be canned daily
to meet the total anticipated production requirements
for the canning season.

To estimate roughly what the daily capacity of the
unit should be, divide the estimated total number of
cans to be processed during the season by the approxi-
mate number of days the cannery will operate. The
canning season will vary with the length of the har-
vesting season and the kinds of produce to be canned.
Add from 10 to 15 percent of the quotient obtained
to allow for the peak production period when the
greatest variety and amount of food can be expected.
Whenever possible, a year-round plan of operation is
advisable and should be encouraged. This is partic-
ularly important in areas in which farm animals are
slaughtered and canned.

The small center, using pressure canners and small
retorts heated by gas burners, is satisfactory for a
daily production up to 800 cans of produce. (See
Small Canning Centers Operated with Gas Burners,
P- 39.)

The steam-operated plant, using small and medium-
sized retorts, should be established where the expected
daily production is greater than 800 cans. (See
Steam-Operated Canning Centers, p. 7.)

In some rural areas canneries are of a size to ac-
commodate patrons on a county-wide basis. In other
instances it is advisable to establish several plants
within a county. This is particularly true where
urban families are interested in participating in can-
ning activities or where transportation difficulties
do not make the county-wide plan feasible.

Selecting the site and building

The site for a community cannery should be consid-
ered first of all in the light of a central location for
the area to be served. Other factors to be considered
are existing regulations regarding the establishment
of such a plant in the area, the water supply and other
utilities, the availability of parking space, and the
avoidance of congested traffic. Where facilities are
to be made available for processing foods for schocl-
lunch programs, institutions, and welfare groups,
consideration will need to be given to the location of
the plant in relation to trucking routes and railroads.
This would particularly apply to those plants plan-
ning to take advantage of the abundant foods made
available through Government purchase programs.

Figure 1. — Community canning plant, Frisco City, Ala.

Running water is a minimum requirement because of
the varied needs for safe and efficient operation. The
water supply line should be of adequate size to deliver
an ample supply for all processing and sanitation
needs. In the absence of a previously approved water
supply, the water should be tested for mineral content,
purity, and degree of hardness.

Electric service should be heavy enough to support
the load required and should be of the voltage neces-
sary to operate the motor-driven equipment.

Gas service for gas-operated units should be ade-
quate for operating all units in the plant at the same
time.

A tele-phone should be provided to facilitate schedul-
ing. In large plants an extension may be necessary.

The building most practical to house a community
cannery is one in which the equipment can be located
on the ground floor. The size of the building should
be determined by the amount of produce to be canned
and the type and amount of equipment to be used. A
rectangular building is most desirable because its floor
space can be used to best advantage when arranging
equipment. (See fig. 1.) However, any space having
the required number of square feet could be used.
While it is desirable to construct a new building
specifically designed for this purpose, used buildings
that can readily be converted are satisfactory. Suit-
able buildings for steam-operated canneries include
abandoned bottling works, bakeries, laundries, ga-
rages, creameries, and other buildings where steam
facilities have already been installed. Buildings ad-
jacent to steam facilities may also be used. Check
such facilities to make sure that they are of ample

capacity to supply both plants. Pressure-canner
units may be located in schools, church basements,
or similar places that provide needed space and util-
ities.

The building needs to be well lighted and properly
ventilated. Sufficient windows should be provided
so that artificial lighting will not be necessary during
the daylight hours. However, artificial lighting will
be required at times and should be planned for and so
arranged that each operation will be well lighted.
Lights should be suspended above head level and so
shaded as to prevent glare.

Windows arranged to take advantage of the pre-
vailing winds will provide good cross ventilation.
In one -story buildings the ventilation and lighting
may be improved by the use of roof ventilators and
skylights. It may be necessary to supplement natural
ventilation with exhaust and circulating fans.

Be sure the ceiling is high enough to assure a com-
fortable room temperature. A minimum ceiling
height of 10 feet is required to allow for clearances
necessary where a track and hoist are used over re-
torts. The floor-load capacity of the building should
be determined and should not in any case be exceeded.
In Northern States consideration must be given to
heating the building during the winter season if
the plant is to be in use at that time.

Floors should be constructed of rough-finished con-
crete, free from cracks and crevices, and should be
well drained at or near the points where quantities
of water are used. Drain locations should be pre-
determined in relationship to the installation of the
equipment. For proper floor drainage the pitch

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Z

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from the wall to the drain should be from % to 1
inch for every 10 linear feet. Box gutter drains are
most suitable in that they are readily accessible for
cleaning. The drain should be connected with an
adequate sewage disposal system. In some cases it
may be necessary to install a septic tank.

The walls should be in good repair and have a
surface that can easily be kept clean.

The building should have at least two doors. A
double door should be provided at the most con-
venient point for delivering produce to the plant.
A single door should be provided for checking out
canned goods. It is preferable that doors open
outward and that all openings of the building be
well screened.

Making the floor plans

The floor plans shown in this publication illustrate
the placement of equipment to insure a good flow of
work through the plant. They should be carefully
studied and adapted to suit best the needs of the
community.

Figure 2 is typical of an average-sized steam unit
and includes the important details that will need to
be considered when making a floor plan for this type
of plant.

Figures 3 and 4 illustrate a combination steam and
gas-burner unit. This combined service permits the
processing of small quantities of produce during slack
seasons, thus eliminating the need for operating the
boiler during such periods. A floor plan for a com-
munity canning plant in which gas burners are used
as the sole source of heat is shown in figure 56, page 39.

Several possible floor plans will need to be made
showing in detail the placement of all equipment and
the continuity of expected operations. Since the
sequence of operations varies somewhat with different
products, the floor plans drawn up should be checked
to determine which ones would best accommodate the
kinds of produce to be canned. An effective way to
develop floor plans is to place cut-to-scale cardboard
models of the equipment on the scaled floor plan of
the building.

In determining the placement of equipment to per-
mit a steady progressive flow of produce through the
plant consider first the receiving area. This area may
be inside the plant or outside on a screened porch or
platform. This area will necessarily vary in size with
the anticipated capacity of the plant. For conven-
ience in checking in produce, the area should be pro-
vided with a small desk or table for the receiving
clerk. The receiving area should be large enough to
include a table for rough preparation of produce, such
as husking corn or topping vegetables, and also for
the rough washing of greens or the soaking of root
crops. This area is often used also for the temporary
storage of produce that cannot be handled promptly.
Space so used should be as close as possible to the line
of production to avoid interference with traffic or
plant operations.

In planning the preparation area, sufficient space

must be provided for patrons to wash the produce and
prepare it for processing. Careful consideration should
be given to the placement of equipment so that the
maximum use can be made of it and patrons will not
interfere with each other in getting the work done.
For example, the placement of the wash sinks and the
blanch and cold-dip tanks should be considered in
relation to the preparation and fill tables, and the ex-
haust box and sealer must be conveniently located
near the fill table. Storage for pans, trays, hand tools,
and supplies should be provided as near the prepara-
tion table as possible.

The processing area should be concentrated in a part
of the building removed from the working areas where
produce is received and prepared. In steam-operated
plants, retorts will need to be placed as near as pos-
sible to the area where the boiler is housed for effi-
cient use of steam and economy of installation.
Where a cooling tank is provided, it should be placed
between the processing equipment and the checking-
out area. This assures the continuity of operations
necessary for rapid handling of the canned produce and
avoids congestion in this area. Furthermore, in
steam-operated units it is thus possible to extend
the track and hoist over it to facilitate the transfer
of the baskets from the retorts to the cooling tank.

It is best to have the checking-out area at the oppo-
site end of the building from the receiving area.
However, in some canneries it may be necessary to
do the checking out in the same area as that in which
the produce is received. This is particularly true in
small canneries where one person is responsible for
both jobs. Where it is necessary to use the receiving
area to check out the products a definite plan will
need to be worked out for routing the canned prod-
ucts through the cannery so as not to interfere with
receiving, preparation, and processing activities. Un-
less facilities are provided near the cooling tank for
the sorting of patrons' cans, tables and shelves for
this purpose should be provided in the checking-out

area.

When making floor plans, provision must also be
made for the storage of empty cans. This space may
be provided within the building or in some con-
venient location nearby. If the can storage space is
provided in the building, it should be separated from
the rest of the cannery by a partition to keep the
area free from steam, which causes the cans to rust.
In the larger steam units it is also desirable to provide
separate office space. In addition there should be
separate dressing rooms and toilet and lavatory facili-
ties for men and women, properly segregated from the
canning area. Hand-washing facilities should also
be provided within the cannery. In steam-operated
units, a room adjacent to the cannery will need to be
provided for the boiler. For safety reasons the
entrance to the boiler room should be outside the
cannery proper. The final determination of the floor
plan and the arrangement of the equipment should be
checked, if possible, by a person who has a thorough
knowledge of the sequence of operations and the use
of the equipment.

689641=

Steam-operated canning centers

Community canning plants can be operated most
efficiently if steam is supplied from a central source
as this permits all operations requiring steam to be
carried on simultaneously. This factor is important
if continuous and maximum production is to be
realized.

Equipment required for a steam-operated plant
similar to that illustrated in figure 2 is listed in table
1. Since equipment from different manufacturers
varies, it is extremely important to study canners'
supply catalogs before placing orders. The informa-
tion given in this publication regarding each item
of equipment should also be studied.

B

oilers

A fire-tube high-pressure boiler is considered most
satisfactory for cannery use as this type of boiler has
the fastest recovery when sudden demands are made

for steam. It may be of either vertical or horizontal
design and can be fired with coal, gas, or oil. Figure
5 shows a vertical coal-fired boiler, the type most
commonly used in community canneries.

Boilers specially designed for the fuel used will give
better performance than reconverted ones. It is rec-
ommended that only those boilers be purchased which
meet the specifications of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers' Boiler Construction Code. If
second-hand boilers are used they also should have
been built originally in accordance with this code
and, before being put into service, should be tested
for 30 minutes by a competent inspector and should
successfully stand a hydrostatic test of double the
pressure at which they are to operate. During this
test period the hammer test should be applied. Boil-
ers in community canneries will vary in size from 15
to 35 horsepower, depending on the anticipated daily
output of canned food and the steam-operated equip-
ment required to process it.

A 15-horsepower boiler is the minimum-sized boiler
recommended for any community cannery operated

Figure 4. — Interior of main part of community canning plant, Jacksonville, Fla.

Table 1. — Canning equipment required for steam -plant of 2,000 to 3,000 No. S-can capacity per 8-hour day

Item

Description

Number
required

Item

Description

Xumber
required

Boiler

20 hp., upright or horizontal.
106 No. 3-can capacity

33 No. 3-can capacity

106 No. 3-can capacity
33 No. 3-can capacity
Approximately 50-gallon ca-
pacity or a size to accom-
modate the largest inset
crate.
40-gallon capacity

1

2

3

2
3

1

1
2
3

1 to 2

2
1

0)
3

1

Blanch and scald

tank.
Cold-dip tank
Medium tank

Cooling tank ■

Preparation table

Meat table

Fill table • .

22" x 22" x 22" (heated

with steam coil).
22" x 22" x 22"

2

Retort with inset
crate.

2

Retort with inset
crate.

Extra inset crate

Extra inset crate

Open-process tank __

15- to 25-gallon capacity for
brine, sirup, etc. (heated
with steam coil).

6' x3' x3' (metal)

10' x4' x 34"

10' x 4' x 32"

10' x 4' x 34"

2

1

2
2
2

Sealer table

Blanching basket

Can trav
Cutting board
Dishpans

2' x4' x34"

2

Steam- jacketed

kettle.
Steam coil

Wire mesh

18 No. 3-can capacity... _

18" x 12" (hardwood)

12 to 16 quart

12

Tinned copper, to fit stock-
pot.

Bench-type, heavy-duty,
power-driven, 5 to 6 cans
per minute.

Bench-type, heavy-duty,
hand-operated 3 to 4 cans
per minute.

3' x 4' x 14" batch-type
(covered).

}i- to J4-ton capacity

500-pound capacity, mini-
mum.

Double-compartment sink,
4' x 2' x 18" (for wash-
ing produce).

4' x 2' x 18", double-com-
partment sink (for wash-
ing pots and pans).

48
(2)
36

Sealer

Dollv

Thermometer
Gage tester

Can lifter

Gloves

Mill file

Magnifying lens

Metal ruler

Garbage can
Steam hose

For general transportation

us in cannery.
Canning

2 to 3

8

Sealer

Test gage and pipe assembly
for testing pressure gages.

For lifting cans from ex-
haust box.

For handling cans at sealer.

10" for filing can seams

Small, for inspecting can
seams.

Standard, for measuring
body and cover hooks of
can seam.

20-gallon capacity with cover.

1

Exhaust box

Chain hoist

Track and carriage. _

Wash sink

2 to 1

(3)
12

1

2

Wash sink

6 to 8

(4)

(4)

Water hose

i 70 feet.

2 Optional.

3 Twelve pairs.

' As needs require.

Note. — Other equipment needed will include fire extinguisher, marking equipment for cans, repair parts for equipment, tools for making repairs, and special
equipment, such as large sieves, pulpers, meat grinders, and lard presses as needed. Paring knives, tomato-peeling knives, vegetable knives^ and butcher knives
should be provided by the cannery to standardize the types and sizes desirable. It is also desirable to provide labor-saving equipment, such as apple peelers and
sheers, cherry pitters, bean cutters, pea shellers, kraut cutters. For suppliers of equipment see Partial List of Manufacturers, p. 83.

with steam. This size of boiler is adequate for plants
having a capacity of 1,000 No. 3 cans per day. A
plant with a capacity of from 2,000 to 3,000 No. 3
cans a day requires a 20-horsepower boiler. (See
fig. 2.) It is preferable that the boiler size be in
excess of anticipated needs as this will allow for ex-
pansion of the plant, if necessary. Equipment sup-
plied with steam from the boiler includes the retorts,
open-process tanks, exhaust boxes, steam-jacketed
kettle, scald and blanch tanks, medium tanks, and
closed coils used for precooking foods. ■

Water-feed system

The boiler must be equipped with a suitable water-
feed system to replenish the supply of water in the
boiler, as necessary. There is a constant drain on the
water supply in the boiler where the condensate of
the steam supply is dissipated as is the case in com-
munity canneries. While there are several types of
water-feed systems, only the injector system is referred
to here as it is the most common type used in canner-
ies. The water may be supplied to the injector from
an overhead tank, city water main, or a tank or barrel
placed beside the boiler. The last-named plan is

desirable for several reasons: A reserve water supply
is available in case the city water pressure is cut off,
the water supply can be easily checked, and there is
not the problem of fluctuating water pressure as may
be the case when the boiler is connected to a city
water main. Figure 6 illustrates the steam injector
with water supplied by suction lift from a tank or
barrel placed beside the boiler.

Care must be taken to keep the barrel well supplied
with water and to keep the water clean. The feed
water, in passing through the injector, is heated by
the steam to a temperature of about 150° F. ; hence,
the strain on the boiler is reduced proportionately.
Steam is admitted to the steam nozzle from the supply
pipe and, in passing into the combining tube, pro-
duces a partial vacuum in the suction, or water
supply pipe, which causes the water to rise in the
pipe and flow into the chamber surrounding the steam
nozzle. The steam, passing at a high velocity into
the combining tube, carries the water along with it.
The energy contained in the steam is sufficient to
carry the water across the opening between the com-
bining and delivery tubes, raise the check valve, and
force the water into the boiler against the boiler
pressure.

8

Figure 5. — Vertical coal-fired boiler.

In installing injectors, the steam supply should be
taken directly from the highest point of the boiler,
thus insuring dry steam at full boiler pressure. Steam
for operating an injector should never be taken from
a pipe supplying steam for other purposes, as the drop
in pressure would probably be sufficient to prevent
successful operation. An ordinary globe valve should
be placed in the steam pipe connecting the injector
with the boiler, for the purpose of starting and stop-
ping.

The suction pipe must be absolutely tight for suc-
cessful operation, as a slight leakage of air will
destroy the vacuum formed in the pipe by the action
of the steam jet. The pipe should be straight, if
possible, as bends and elbows increase the friction
and consequently decrease the flow of water. For
short lifts, such as that illustrated by figure 6, the
size of pipe should be the same as the connection to
the injector. The suction pipe should run directly
from the injector to the water supply. It should not
be connected to a pipe supplying water for other
purposes.

A globe valve should be placed in the suction pipe
for the purpose of regulating the flow of water to
the injector. The valve stem must be kept carefully
packed at all times, as any leakage of air will prevent
operation of the injector. Both a check and a globe
valve should be placed in the delivery pipe, the globe
valve being between the check valve and the boiler.
With this arrangement, boiler pressure can be cut
off and the check valve removed for inspection, clean-
ing, or repairs. Since it is necessary to supply water
to the boiler before the boiler is fired a bypass water
line should be provided in the injector assembly. A
globe valve is provided in the bypass line for regu-

STEAM CO
possible: po

NNLCTION AT HIGHEST Q-
'OINT IN BOILER 47,

STEAM LINE

BOILER

STEAM GLOBE VALVE

INJECTOR
SWING CHECK

ULATING GLOBE VALVE

-WATER INTAKE
PIPE CONNECTION

Figure 6. — Diagram of injector piping
and valve arrangement.

GLOBE SHUT-OFF VALVE

DISCHARGE LINE
INTO LOWER PORTION
OF BOILER

FAUCET FOR
WATER SUPPLY

.-SUCTION STRAINER

lating the supply of water to the boiler. When water
is delivered directly to the injector from an overhead
tank or from city water mains a heavy pressure
frequently exists and, in this instance, to facilitate
starting on low steam, two globe valves are used in
the water supply line. One valve is placed as near
the injector as possible to regulate the water supply,
while the second valve, placed several feet away, is
employed to reduce the pressure. A strainer should
be placed on the end of the suction pipe to prevent
any foreign material from entering and possibly clog-
ging the injector or check valves.

If the injector should fail to operate, a systematic
search should be made to locate the cause. Some of
the most common causes of failure to operate are the
following:

1. The body of the injector and mixing tube becoming overheated
by either —

(a~) leaky steam valve or discharge line check, or (b~) being hooked
in too close to the boiler proper.

2. Leaks in the suction-pipe valve.

3. Foreign matter deposited in tubes.

4. Strainer on end of suction pipe clogged.

5. Too low steam pressure for lift.

6. Too high steam pressure for lift.

7. Defective check valve.

8. Valve in suction pipe not properly regulated.

9. Absence of water at source.

It sometimes happens that an injector will lift water
but will not force it into the boiler. This may be
caused by a leak in the suction pipe, but it is more
often caused by an obstruction in the delivery pipe
between the injector and the boiler. This pipe often
becomes choked with lime deposits. A test for ob-
structions in the delivery pipe can be made by connect-
ing a steam gage between the injector and the boiler.
If this gage shows a pressure much above that of the
boiler, it indicates an obstruction of some kind in the
delivery pipe.

The capacity of an injector should be at least 50
percent greater than the maximum requirements of the
boiler it is to serve, as this provides against any heavy
demands, and furthermore, the water supply can be
reduced by throttling. On the other hand, if the
injector is too small it is impossible to increase its
capacity. When ordering injectors state the boiler
horsepower, minimum and maximum operating pres-
sure, and the method of supplying the water to the
injector.

Location

The location of the boiler may be more or less pre-
determined by the nature of the building or the loca-
tion in relation to surrounding buildings. However,
it is most desirable to have the boiler as near as possible
to the various pieces of equipment using steam,
thereby reducing the length of the steam service lines
and increasing the efficiency of the boiler. For
safety, comfort, and cleanliness the boiler should be
located outside the building if at all possible. (See
fig. 2.) Where boilers are installed outside the
building they should be properly housed for the pro-
tection of the equipment and the comfort of the
firemen.

If it is necessary to install the boiler within the
building it must be segregated from the main cannery
room by a partition — at least a 12-inch brick wall —
built in accordance with existing codes on such con-
struction and there must be no door between the boiler
room and the cannery. The boiler should be set level
on a solid foundation, preferably of concrete. The
height of the flue or stack should be determined solely
by the size and type of boiler and the proximity of
surrounding objects. The stack should be substan-
tially constructed, properly guyed at intervals not to
exceed 10 feet, and equipped with a flame arrester.

Local or State officials should be consulted before
installing the boiler, as most States have boiler-
inspection laws that must be complied with.

Boiler fittings and steam and water lines

Some important points to be considered in the selec-
tion and installation of boiler fittings and steam and
water lines are :

1. The pipe size for the main header steam line
from the boiler can be readily determined by the size
of the tapping. In no instance should this pipe size
be reduced if the full efficiency of the boiler is to be
realized.

2. Careful consideration should be given in the
selection of materials used in the installation of high-
pressure steam boilers. It is false economy to pur-
chase cheap fittings and valves of unknown quality.
All pipes, valves, and fittings should be of standard
250-pound test. The design and construction of water
valves differ from those of steam valves; therefore,
no attempt should be made to use water valves in a
steam line.

3. When cutting and fitting pipe, special care should
be taken to see that all threads are clean and that all
burs are removed from the ends of the pipes. Failure
to do this will result in unsatisfactory operation be-
cause of leaky fittings and reduced capacity of the
lines.

4. Before pipes are assembled, care should be taken
to see that they are free of loose foreign material,
such as filings, chips, or shavings, which might later
lodge in and damage the delicate mechanism of such
fittings as injectors and valves.

5. All thread connections and pipe joint make-ups
should be coated with a good pipe thread compound
to seal them against leaks and to facilitate uncoupling
for repairs.

6. Y-type strainers should be placed in main steam
and water feeder lines to catch all types of foreign
materials and to facilitate cleaning of the lines.

7. The boiler safety valve and blow-down valve
should be attached to the body of the boiler in the
respective tappings designated by the manufacturer,
and no attempt should be made to attach any other
steam outlet or water feed to these openings.

8. Injectors, tube cleaners, or other apparatus re-
quiring actual flow of steam should not be connected
to the water column or to the gage glass fittings, as

10

this will cause the glass to show a false water level
while such appliances are in use.

9. All steam lines should be adequately supported,
and provisions should be made for the expansion of
these lines when heated.

10. Where steam and water pipes are installed in
parallel drops and the control valves are placed at the
same height, adequate spacing should be given to
insure free manipulation of the valves in order to
prevent injury by coming in contact with the hot
valve.

11. In making connections with various types of
equipment, standard practice should be carried out —
locating the steam pipe at the left and the water pipe
at the right of the operator when facing them.

12. In the installation of steam and water lines,
provision should be made at every low point to
provide for the draining of such lines when freezing
weather is threatened.

13. To keep steam lines free of condensate water,
blow-down valves should be arranged at the end of
each line, or steam traps may be provided for this
purpose.

14. Where a drop line is provided for the attach-
ment of a steam hose the connection should be made
in a vertical position to prevent injury to anyone
should the steam hose become loosened from the
fitting.

15. All steam lines, fittings, and connections lo-
cated in an exposed position in the working area
should be insulated up to 7 feet above the floor to
prevent injury to persons working in the plant.

16. Steam and water lines should be properly
identified by the use of different colors of paint to
prevent possible scalding of anyone mistaking a
steam valve for a water valve.

17- Provisions should be made for the attachment
of hose to the water lines at convenient places for
washing floors and equipment.

Boiler operation

Because boilers are so varied in type, it is impossible
to give specific directions on the operation of all kinds
of boilers that will be used in community canneries.
However, many of the general principles of operation
apply to all boilers. Since the coal-fired vertical
boiler is most commonly used, some of the important
phases of its operation are given. To supplement
these instructions it is recommended that all boiler
operators be supplied with a copy of the book,
Suggested Rules for Care of Power Boilers (jf).1

The first duty of a fireman in preparing to fire a
boiler is to check the water level. This is accom-
plished by two methods: (1) Ascertaining the level
of the water as shown on the sight glass and check-
ing to see if the sight glass is functioning properly.
To do this, close both sight glass valves and drain the
sight glass. The valves should then be reopened to
see that the water returns to the same level as shown

1 Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Literature cited, p. 85.

before. (2) Open and close all three try cocks to
determine whether the sight glass shows the correct
level. The water should flow only from the center
and bottom cocks as the proper level should be half-
way between the center and top try cocks.

It should next be determined that all valves in the
boiler room are in proper position for operation. The
main steam supply or header valve should be closed
and valves on the water-feed system should be either
opened or closed in accordance with instructions for
the particular type of water-feed system used.

When the fire is started the draft door and stack
damper should be opened; the grates should be in the
proper position for firing and free from clinkers.
Ashes should be scattered to a depth of 1 inch over
the entire grate area before the fire is kindled. In the
case of a new boiler installation, especially where it
is bricked in, caution should be used so that the heat
is not brought up too fast. Time should be given to
allow the boiler to heat and expand slowly. In no
case should a boiler be forced to reach the required
pressure too rapidly. After the fire has started and
while the boiler is warming up, steam valves on all
equipment in the plant should be closed.

At this point, the seams, rivets, connections, and
fittings should be checked to see that there are no
leaks. No defects should be assumed to be safe.
When the boiler reaches one-half the normal operating
pressure it should be blown down and the safety valve
tried by hand to see that it is functioning properly.
The purpose of blowing down the boiler is to remove
the accumulated sediment around the base *of the
tubes and at the bottom of the water pit. This is
accomplished by very slowly opening the blow-down
valve located at the bottom of the boiler to a fully
open position until the water level in the sight glass
is lowered by one-half. The blow-down valve is
then closed and the water replenished in the boiler to
a normal operating position. When the boiler reaches
the normal operating pressure the fireman should
notify the supervisor that he is ready to turn the
steam into the supplv lines. It is important for the
supervisor to see that no one is repairing steam lines
at this time and that patrons and employees are
warned that the steam is being turned into the lines.

The main steam supply valve should be opened
very slowly at first, a little time being allowed for
the lines in the plant to warm up before opening it
widely. This will prevent undue strain on the lines
and fittings.

The supervisor should acquaint the fireman with
the steam needs for various products and processes
so that the fireman will know when extra demands
will be made for steam. A more satisfactory opera-
tion will result if the fireman is able to build up the
steam supply before the demand actually occurs.
Fire is maintained in the boiler by adding the fuel
in small amounts at frequent intervals. This results
in more complete combustion and a quicker response
to peak loads of steam when required than do large
quantities of fuel added at less frequent intervals.

It is good operating practice at some time during

11

each day's operation to build up tile steam suffi-
ciently to check the operation of the safety valve at
the pressure for which it has been set. As the
safety valve opens, the number of pounds of pressure
on the steam gage should be noted and should check
with the pressure at which the valve was set.

The water level in the boiler should be watched
carefully and the water-feed system should be started
to operate well in advance of the actual demand for
water. This gives the operator some leeway in case
difficulty is encountered in operating the water-feed
system. If for any reason the gage shows that the
water has fallen to or below the point designated by
the manufacturer as a minimum operating level, no
attempt should be made to feed water into the boiler.
All valves should be left as they are and the fire with-
drawn from the grates. The fire door should be left
open so that the draft created through the tubes will
cool the boiler to a point where it is safe to replenish
the water supply. If the gage glass is not equipped
with chain-operated, quick-closing valves, it is recom-
mended that a common broom be kept near the boiler
at all times. In case of a broken glass the broom may
be used to prevent scalds in shutting off the sight-glass
valves. It should be pushed over the valve stem, the
broken glass, and the valve head so that the straws
will break the force of the escaping steam and water
and give the operator a chance to close the valves
without being scalded. The bottom valve should be
turned off first; the top valve closed last. With the
steam and water shut off, the glass may be replaced.

Owing to the fact that excess oil, gas, compounds,
and lime sediment may have accumulated in the boiler,
a condition called foaming and priming may occur
sometimes. This is indicated by the presence of foam
and the rapid rise and fall of the water level in the
sight glass. If the water level is high enough, the
boiler may be blown down and the water supply re-
plenished. By repeating this process several times the
condition may be corrected. In extreme cases, how-
ever, it may be necessary to wash down the boiler.
The job of washing down the boiler should be done
when the boiler is cold. It will be necessary to re-
move all handhole and manhole plates and start at the
top of the boiler, washing inside with a hose. In this
manner the sediment is washed down to the lowest
point from which it is possible to remove it from the
boiler. Before handhole and manhole plates are re-
placed, the gaskets and surfaces which they contact
should be examined to see that they are clean and
smooth. The gaskets should be painted with a mix-
ture of graphite and oil to keep them soft and pliable.
The necessity for washing down will vary according
to the frequency of use and the local water supply but
the job should be done often enough so that at no
time will there be an excessive accumulation of sedi-
ment for the type of boiler used.

An accumulation of soot in the tubes of a boiler
reduces the efficiency because it acts as an insulation.
It should be removed, therefore, as often as necessary
to permit direct contact of the heat. with the tubes.
This is usually accomplished by drawing a scraper or

wire brush back and forth through the tubes to dis-
lodge the deposits. The frequency of this condition
and the need for cleaning will vary with the type and
quality of fuel used and the frequency with which the
boiler is used. The boiler tubes should be blown out
daily with steam.

In some localities where the water supply is of such
composition that it is necessary to treat the feed water
or to use boiler compounds to prevent scale, corrosion,
or wet steam, a qualified water chemist or a steam
engineer should be consulted. No attempt should be
made to use boiler compounds or to treat feed water
without first making an analysis of the feed and blow-
down water and the condensate from the steam mains
at the plant. If it is determined that treatment is
necessary it is recommended that the closed-coil
system of heating, rather than the perforated pipes, be
used where the food comes in contact with the water
or steam, as in blanch and scald tanks, medium tanks,
precooking kettles (other than steam-jacketed kettles)
and exhaust boxes. (The closed-coil system of heat-
ing these items of equipment is illustrated in this
publication.)

Caution: The safety valve should be set by a quali-
fied boiler inspector at the time the boiler is installed
and should never be changed except on the advice of
a boiler inspector. The safety valve should be kept
free at all times and properly lubricated. The pipe
from the blow-down valve should lead to a sump or pit,
or a baffle should be placed opposite the end to
prevent scalding of persons coming in contact with it.
If the boiler grates are equipped with a detachable
shaker bar, it should be kept in place, or hanging in a
convenient place near the boiler, at all times because
its use may be necessary in withdrawing the fire in case
of an emergency, such as loss of water in the boiler.

The boiler room should be kept clean and in order
at all times and no tools or obstruction should be per-
mitted to remain on the floor or at a point that would
hamper the operation of the boiler system. Boiler-
room doors should open outward and should never be
bolted. Boiler rooms should be properly ventilated
to prevent an accumulation of gases. Persons not
immediately concerned with the operation of the boiler
should never be permitted in the boiler room. The
boiler should be attended and operated in accordance
with State and local codes.

Retorts

A steam retort is a closed pressure vessel designed
for processing canned foods under steam pressure.
All nonacid vegetables, meats, and fish are processed
under steam in order to attain temperatures sufficiently
high to destroy spore-forming bacteria that may be
present.

Type and number of retorts

Vertical retorts of less than 200 No. 3 can capacity-
are most commonlv used in community canneries.
It is well to provide retorts of 33 No. 3 can capacity

12

in combination with larger retorts to allow for
flexibility necessary for processing small or large
quantities. To determine the number of retorts
needed, divide the total anticipated daily output of
nonacid foods by the daily output per retort. On an
average, retorts will be loaded six to eight times a
day, depending on the produce processed. It is best
to figure the number of retorts needed on a basis of
six loadings per day so that capacity is provided for
peak production periods.

Retorts, often referred to as unfired pressure vessels,
should be purchased from a reputable manufacturer
who can be depended on to furnish equipment of a
design that is adequate for the intended service.
Some States have laws controlling the specifications
of unfired pressure vessels used in canning plants,
while others do not. It is recommended, however,
that in all instances only those retorts be purchased
which are constructed in accordance with the Un-
fired Pressure Vessel Code of the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers (i) and bear its seal.

Retort equipment

Retorts used in community canneries should be of
steel welded construction and equipped with a
number of lugs for holding on the lid. They should
also be equipped with a mercury thermometer, pres-
sure gage, safety valve, vent, and pet-cock bleeder.
A gasket, preferably fitted into the flange of the
retort body, is provided for the purpose of making
a seal between the lid and the retort flange.

Mercury-in-glass thermometer

The mercury, or indicating, thermometer is the
official instrument by which processing is done. It
should be graduated in 1° to 2° divisions and should
read from 170° to 270° F. The bulb of the indicating
thermometer should be installed preferably in an
external well or pipe attached to the side of the retort
body. (See figs. 9 and 12.) The thermometer bulb
should clear the surrounding walls of the external
well or pipe by at least % inch. The well
or pipe must be equipped with a }g-inch pet-cock
bleeder so located as to provide a full flow of
steam past the entire length of the thermometer
bulb. The bulb of the indicating thermometer may
be installed within the lid of the retort provided the
entire bulb extends below the lid where it is com-
pletely exposed to the flow of steam.

Pressure gage

The pressure gage should be graduated in 1-pound
divisions and should have a range from 0 to 30
pounds. The gage should have a minimum 3-inch
and preferably a 5-inch dial and should be of a type
in which the operating mechanism is independent of
the case. Pressure gages and thermometers should
be so placed with respect to light and position that
they may be easily read.

Vent and bleeder

All retorts used in community canneries should be
equipped with a venting outlet of at least %- to
%-inch diameter and preferably larger. The vent
should be controlled by a quick-opening gate-type
valve which permits a free flow of air from the retort
during the coming-up time. A globe valve should
not be used as it will greatly reduce the venting effi-
ciency. The vent should be placed in the top of the
retort opposite the steam inlet at the bottom. In
addition to the vent a ^-inch bleeder should be pro-
vided in the retort lid. Inasmuch as it is kept par-
tially open throughout the processing period it
should be arranged in such a way that the operator
can observe that the steam is emitting. In many
instances the }s-inch pet-cock bleeder is the only pro-
vision made for venting the retort. Such a bleeder is
very inadequate for venting retorts and should be
supplemented with a valve-controlled vent as specified
above.

Safety valve

A safety valve of the same size as the steam inlet is
recommended because the retort is hand-controlled
and it might be possible to develop the full boiler
pressure in the retort if this valve were not sufficiently
large. The safety valve, located in the lid of the re-
tort, should be set to blow from 2 to 5 pounds above
operating pressure. Vent valves, safety valves, and
pet-cock bleeders should be so placed that steam may
not be discharged in the direction of the operator.
It is well to provide a shield on the safety valve so
that persons near the retort will not be burned by
the steam if the valve opens to release the pressure.

Retort inset crate

An inset crate must be provided for holding cans in
the retort. It is well to provide an additional crate
for each retort to give the capacity needed for loading
cans preparatory to processing. These crates should
preferably be of strap-iron material or heavy wire. If
perforated sheet-metal crates are used they should have
1-inch holes on 1%-inch centers or the equivalent.
Sheet-metal crates with too few perforations should
not be used, for they retard the removal of air from the
retort and do not permit a full flow of steam around
the cans. This may cause serious underprocessing
owing to air pockets that may be present.

Installation of retorts

For efficient use of steam and economy of operation,
retorts are placed near the boiler. In community
canneries they are usually installed in a straight line.
Where retorts of different sizes are used care must be
taken so that they are centered in line to facilitate the
removal of retort crates with the overhead hoist. Two
ways to make the best use of floor space required for
retort installation in a rectangular building are
demonstrated in figures 7 and 8.

689641° — 46-

13

-fe

.BUILDING WALL'
///////

_^j_RETORT COVERS IN OPEN POSITION7

Figure 7. — Plan for installing retorts with
cover arm assembled for 45° swing.

Figure 8. — Plan for installing retorts with cover
arm assembled in horizontal position.

/ / / / / / / /

/BUILDING WALL
////////

RETORT COVERS IN QPEN""P05ITI0N

"V-^

COVER ARM
ASSEMBLED, HORIZONTAL

Where it is necessary to make an installation across
the narrow end of a building or in any area where the
length of the installation is restricted, it is possible by
proper location of the cover cranes to group the retorts
in such a manner that the minimum distance between
retorts will be obtained. This necessitates their
installation farther away from the wall than ordi-
narily would be necessary. Where retorts are to be
installed lengthwise of a rectangular building and
where conservation of the width of the building is a
prime factor, by proper location of the cover crane the
retorts may be placed so that the distance to the wall
will be held to a minimum. This method requires
more distance between retorts than the first method
but valuable space in front of the retort is conserved.
The placement of retorts in relation to each other will
of necessity vary with the size of the retort. In all
cases the distance from the wall and the distance

14

between the retorts should be ample enough for a
cover to swing open without striking an adjacent
retort or the wall. After being alined, the retort
should be fastened securely to a low, sturdy bench or
supported by legs secured to the floor, allowing
enough space under it for making the necessary pipe
connections.

Figure 9 shows a satisfactory piping arrangement
for installing a single retort to be used for processing
only. The steam line should be % inch in diameter
and should enter the retort at the bottom in such a
way that steam will be directed up into the load of
cans. In retorts that are to be used for processing and
pressure cooling it is advisable that the steam line
lead to a perforated pipe which crosses at right angles
near the bottom of the retort. (See fig. 12.) This
will assure an even distribution of steam during proc-
essing and pressure cooling. The pipe should be per-

f orated with eight %-inch holes to 1 foot of pipe.
The perforations should be on top of the pipe so that
the steam can be directed upward around the cans.

Although retorts constructed in accordance with the
code set up by the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers CI) may be supplied with steam from a high-
pressure line, it is recommended that they be supplied
from a low-pressure line. Retorts that do not meet
the requirements of this code must be supplied with
steam from a low-pressure line. This is accomplished
either through the use of a pressure-reducing valve
installed in the steam line leading to each retort (see
fig. 9) or through the use of a single pressure-reducing
valve installed in the main steam line leading to a
battery of retorts (see fig. 10). The former method is

preferred in that the pressure to each retort is not
affected when other retorts are put into operation as
might be the case when a single pressure-reducing
valve is used to control the pressure to a battery of
retorts. Furthermore, if the pressure-reducing valve
to an individual retort should fail to function, only
that retort would be affected. Either a pilot-operated
or spring-type valve may be used for installations to
single retorts. If a single pressure-reducing valve is
used to control the pressure to a battery of retorts, a
pilot-operated valve is recommended as a closer degree
of regulation can be obtained than with the spring-
type valve. In the latter case a bypass steam line
should be installed around the regulator so that the
pressure can be controlled manually if for any reason

VENT
SAFETY VALVI
PETCOCK

Figure 9. — Diagram of piping arrangement to
single retort for processing only.

- -3" WATER

m:heck valve

-HIGH-PRESSURE. STEAM

^'i- SHIgh-PK-Essure: gage

-PETCOCK

LOW-PRESSURE GAGE
PETCOCK
SAFETY VALVE

TEES FOR RETORT 5UPPLY

MANIFOLD LINE

VALVE

ACTUATING

CONTROL

LINE

QpiCD

Figu

gure

10. — Diagram of piping arrangement of pilot-operated pressure-reducing valve in main steam line leading to a battery of

retorts.

15

it is necessary to remove the regulator from service.
(See fig. 10.) Only an experienced person should be
permitted to adjust the pressure-reducing valve or
operate the steam valves of the bypass line.

A pressure-reducing valve should be installed near
the equipment it is to control and should be set so as
to reduce the pressure from the high-pressure line to
a pressure from 3 to 5 pounds above that at which
the retorts are operated. As a protection against the
failure of the pressure-reducing valve, a safety valve
of the same size as the low-pressure pipe line should
be provided between the pressure-reducing valve and
the retort and should be set to pop off at 5 to 10
pounds higher than the pressure at which the retorts
are operated. In all instances where a pressure-
reducing valve is used, a strainer should be provided
in the steam line leading to the regulator valve to
prevent dirt or other foreign matter from accumulat-
ing on the seating surface. Individual strainers are
not necessary where pressure-reducing valves are pro-
vided for each retort if the strainer is placed in the
steam supply line. A Y-type strainer is recommended
as it may be easily removed for cleaning. The port
seats of the valve should be of stainless-steel trim or
other equally noncorrosive metal if satisfactory per-
formance is to be assured over a long period of time.

It is important from an operating standpoint as
well as that of cost that the regulator be correctly
sized. The size should be determined on the basis
of the work to be done rather than by the size of the
existing pipe lines. When ordering pressure-reducing
valves, state the boiler pressure and the pressure at
which the retorts are to be operated, as well as the
number and size of retorts that are to be operated off
the low-pressure line.

It is well to provide a water-inlet pipe line to retorts
to assure flexibility in operation. Retorts may then
be used interchangeably for water-bath and steam-
pressure processing. (See fig. 9.) A water-inlet line
must be provided for retorts that are to be used for
pressure cooling. A retort of 106 No. 3 can capacity
is the smallest recommended for pressure cooling.
(See fig. 12.) The water pressure should be at least
10 pounds greater than the pressure used in processing.
An overflow pipe line not less than 1 inch in diameter,
fitted with a gate valve, must be provided on any
retort used for pressure cooling. If the discharge end
of the overflow line is under water or if the line is
connected to a drain line, as shown in figure 12, the
overflow line should be broken, as at D, in order to
prevent a vacuum from being drawn in the retort.
It is preferable to use a funnel connection, as shown
in figure 12, as such installation permits ready inspec-
tion of the volume of water passing out. All retorts
must be provided with an adequate drain not less than
1 inch and preferably 1% inches in diameter connected
to a sewer or discharged into a floor drain, as desired.
A retort used for pressure cooling requires a minimum
drain l}i inches in diameter and, if the drain line is
more than a few feet long, a 2-inch drain would be
advisable. This provision is necessary to aid in the
rapid removal of water from the retort during pres-

sure cooling and the removal of air from the retort
when the overflow pipe is used for venting. A smaller
drain pipe may restrct the removal of water or air
from the retort. All pipes should be reamed in order
to assure full capacity. They should also be blown
out to remove particles that may cause the valve seats
to become scored.

The arrangement of fittings and connections, shown
in figures 9 and 12, may need to be modified to meet
local conditions. However, steam and water valves
should be so located that each may be readily reached
and the operator will be able to watch the pressure
gage and thermometer.

Care of retorts

In community canneries where retorts are used but
seasonally the entire retort hook-up should be exam-
ined carefully at the beginning of the canning season
and each retort should be brought up to processing
temperature without a load. At this time carefully
inspect the steam line for leaks; check the vents,
bleeders, safety valves, gages, and thermometers. All
valves should be gone over to see that they seat
properly and operate freely. Gages and thermometers
should be tested for accuracy before the plant is put
into operation and at least once during the canning
season. The retorts should be thoroughly cleaned
with a wire brush to prevent loose scale or rust from
getting into the valves during operation. The gas-
ket in the retort flange must be maintained in good
condition by treating it at frequent intervals with a
solution of graphite in oil. This prevents it from
sticking and helps to make a good seal. When the
gasket becomes worn, it should be replaced. An
extra gasket should be on hand for replacement.
When a new gasket is installed, it should be joined
with an angular overlapping join because a certain
amount of shrinkage will develop after it has been
used a short time and the angular join prevents leak-
age when this occurs. Be sure that retorts are thor-
oughly drained and permitted to dry at the end of
each day's operation to prevent rust and stale odors
that might otherwise occur. It is well to fill the
retort with water occasionally and boil it out to
remove grease or other foreign matter.

Retort operation

When a retort has been idle for an hour or longer,
the steam line should be blown out immediately
before using. This can be accomplished by closing
the lid of the retort and turning on the steam for a
minute or two until live steam, free from air or con-
densate, flows from the line. Thereafter during the
day, if the retort is in constant use, it will not be
necessary to repeat this procedure. After blowing
out the steam line close the steam valve, open the
lid, and place the crate of cans in the retort, readjust-
ing the lid into position. Lift all lugs into place.
Do not tighten any until they are all up. This in-
sures that all lugs can be raised into position. Fasten

16

lugs by hand until tight. Turn opposite lugs, work-
ing back and forth across the head of the vessel until
all lugs are tight. Do not start at one point and go
around the lid because this will put a strain on the
lid. Furthermore, it may cause some lugs to become
loose when the pressure builds up in the retort, and
accidents may occur.

It is necessary to fasten the lid only securely enough
to prevent the escape of steam between the lid and
the retort. In using a retort for the first time, the
position of the cover in relation to the body should
be marked so that the cover may be replaced every
time in the same position. This will prevent damage
to the gasket and avoid the possibility of leaks from
that source.

In following the instructions given in this publi-
cation for processing nonacid canned foods, the
operator must make sure that the product has been
heated in the retort in pure steam at the temperature
specified for the length of time recommended.

Venting retorts

Retorts, even when fully loaded, contain consider-
able air, which must be completely replaced by steam
before the process is begun. Retorts only partially
filled contain considerably more air than those with
a full load. Air trapped between the cans within the
retort load produces air pockets or low-temperature
spaces in which the cans are not fully processed. Air
acts as an insulator and, when present, will cut down
the penetration of the steam. The transfer of heat
to the cans is very much faster from steam than from
a steam-air mixture. It is imperative, therefore,
that all air be removed from the retort before starting
the process if the full value of the process is to be
realized and spoilage avoided. This is accomplished
by venting the retort. Since air pockets may persist
for a considerable length of time, the retort must be
vented for a predetermined period of time.

To determine the adequate venting times for com-
munity cannery type retorts, a study by Fitzpatrick,
McConnell, and Esselen (7) was conducted at the
Massachusetts State College and the following recom-
mendations were made:

No. 2 steam retorts (33 No. 3 can capacity) should be vented at
least 7 minutes at 0 pound or 10 pounds pressure.

No. 3 steam retorts (106 No. 3 can capacity) should be vented
for at least 25 minutes at 0 pound pressure, or 10 minutes at 10
pounds pressure.

It is well to vent all retorts under pressure to assure
the removal of air pockets, and in the case of the
larger retorts, to shorten the time for venting.

To vent these retorts adequately within the period
of time given, it is important that the venting outlet
be of sufficient size to permit the rapid removal of
air. (Vents provided should be of the size recom-
mended on page 13.) The %-inch pet cocks usually
provided en retorts are not large enough to function
as vents but serve only as bleeders to prevent the
accumulation of noncondensable gases that may be
introduced with the steam. Other factors that need

to be considered to assure adequate venting of retorts
are the steam supply, the equipment used for holding
the cans in the retort, and the arrangement of cans in
the retort crates. A %-inch steam-inlet line should
be the minimum size provided for retorts that are to
be vented in the time recommended. Retorts having
only a %-inch steam-inlet line will need to be vented
at least 5 minutes longer than the time recommended
to assure the removal of air pockets. The type of
crate and the arrangement of cans which permit a
free flow of steam in all directions around the cans
are illustrated in figure 11. (For further information
on the stacking of cans in retort crates see page 57,
and for information on the use of perforated crates
see page 13.)

To vent a retort, open wide the vent valve or the
pet-cock bleeder on the retort lid. Also open wide the
pet-cock bleeder on the thermometer pocket, as air
trapped in the pocket will reflect a false reading.
Make certain that the water-inlet valve and the drain
valve are closed. Open the valve of the steam supply
line gradually until a flow of steam comes into the
retort. Do not count the venting time until a steady
stream of steam issues from the vent or pet-cock
bleeders. The presence of air pockets in the retort is
not indicated by the retort thermometer or pressure
gage, even though they may be in agreement. There-
fore, venting must be continued for the predetermined
time necessary to assure the removal of all air.

Figure 11. — Slatted retort crate.

17

Processing

At the end of the venting period the vent valve or
top pet-cock bleeder and the thermometer bleeder
should be partially closed so that approximately half
of the full flow of steam is emitted. They are left in
this position throughout the entire processing period,
thus permitting the essential circulation of steam
throughout the retort and past the thermometer bulb.
Processing time is counted as soon as the thermometer
indicates the processing temperature desired and is in
agreement with the gage pressure. (See table 8 for
gage pressure corresponding to specified process
temperatures at various altitudes.) Compute the
time in which processing is to be done and record it on
the retort or on a clock face or pad. A small square
marked off on the retort with blackboard paint makes
a very satisfactory place to record processing periods.
Chalk may be used and erased with each processing.
To avoid confusion when recording processing time on
a pad or clock face, it is important that the retorts
be numbered for identification and the appropriate
number be recorded on the pad or clock face.

The correct temperature in the retort is maintained
by regulating the bottom steam-inlet valve. Retorts
should be watched carefully throughout the processing
period. Fluctuations in temperature or pressure may
result in underprocessing or overprocessing. Further-
more, these fluctuations cause undue strain on the can
seams. If the temperature or pressure is permitted to
drop, it may be necessary to lengthen the processing
time, or to reprocess, in order to prevent spoilage.
(See p. 58.) The practice of depending on pressure-
reducing valves as a control of the retort pressure
should be discouraged as this is not a protection
against a drop in boiler pressure. Furthermore, these
valves may get out of adjustment or fail to operate.
At the end of the processing period the steam supply
line to the retort should be closed and the retort left to
vent until the pressure gage reaches zero before the
retort cover is removed. Too rapid venting at the
end of the processing period may cause cans to buckle.
When No. 3 cans are used, pressure should be released
slowly, and the pet cock adjusted to about one-half
open. When smaller cans are used, pressure may be
released more rapidly. However, the pet cock should
be opened gradually as the pressure goes down.
When the gage-pressure reading is at zero, open the
retort promptly and remove the cans for cooling.

Pressure cooling of cans in retorts of 106 No. 3 can
capacity or larger (pressure maintained with steam)

Cans of larger diameters, such as No. 5 and No. 10,
if processed under pressure, must be cooled under pres-
sure. Otherwise, the ends of the cans may buckle
when the steam pressure is permitted to drop after the
cooking is completed. This buckling is caused by ex-
cessive pressure inside the can as opposed to the lower
atmospheric pressure outside the can. Such excessive
pressure, in addition to disfiguring the can, may over-
strain the double seam and cause spoilage owing to
leakage. This pressure differential can be reduced only

by lowering the temperature of the can contents before
the pressure in the retort is permitted to drop. If
buckling has been experienced in cans of smaller diam-
eter (such as No. 2, No. 2%, and No. 3), processed
under pressure, they should also be cooled under
pressure.

Pressure cooling may be accomplished by maintain-
ing the pressure either with steam or compressed air.
Where compressed air is available the use of this
method is more desirable. However, since most com-
munity canneries will of necessity be limited to the
method in which the pressure is maintained with
steam during part of the cooling period, instructions
are given for that method.

Figure 12 illustrates a typical retort installation
with minimum pipe connections to permit pressure
cooling. The pressure is maintained with steam.

Retorts in which cans are to be pressure-cooled are
operated according to the preceding instructions, with
the following exceptions:

1. Before putting the crate in the retort, admit
from 6 to 8 inches of water and turn on the steam to
bring the water to the boiling point. This provides
a cushion of water in the retort to prevent condensa-
tion of the steam when water is admitted at the
beginning of pressure cooling.

2. Before starting the venting process close the
steam valve A in the steam supply line coming in at
the top side of the retort.

3. When venting the retort, open the gate valve E
in the overflow line and leave it open throughout the
venting period. At the end of the venting period
completely close this valve.

At the end of the processing period the following
points should be observed for pressure cooling all large
diameter cans, and small sizes where necessarv.

Open the steam valve B an additional quarter turn
or more to build up the pressure slightly above oper-
ating pressure. Give water inlet valve C about a
quarter turn. Let stand a few minutes and repeat
until a full flow of water comes into the retort. It is
extremely important at all times that the water be
admitted to the retort gradually, and particularly so
where the water pressure at the retort is in excess of
50 pounds.

Continue admitting steam and water together until
the layer of hot water has been increased by several
inches in the retort. This will usually require 2 or 3
minutes.

As the layer of hot water builds up, turn off the
lower steam valve B gradually until it is completely
closed and cold water is being admitted under the
layer of hot water. This layer of hot water pre-
vents the steam in the top of the retort from condens-
ing and thus makes it possible to maintain a pressure
on the cans.

The pressure should be held at or above the normal
operating pressure. This is accomplished by opening
the top steam-inlet valve A as the bottom steam valve
B is closed.

As the retort fills with water, there will be little
use for steam to hold the pressure because it will be

18

VENT
SAFETY VALVE
PET COCK

C-ATE VALVE FOR
OVER FLOW AKID^^C^y
VENT

Figure 12. — Diagram of piping arrange-
ment to single retort for processing and
pressure cooling.

GATE VALVE STEAM MAIN

PRESSURE-REDUCING VALV
PRESSURE GAGE

SAFETY VALVE
THERMOMETER

RETORT

SUPPORTS FOR RETORT CRATE
CROSS

l"DRAIN

a

CHECK VALVE,

63

^PERFORATED STEAM PIPE

DRAIN

maintained by the water pressure. However, con-
tinued observation and adjustment of valve A will
be necessary. When the water level reaches the pet-
cock bleeder on the thermometer it should be closed
and valve A, top steam inlet, should be closed. It
will be noted that the mercury column of the ther-
mometer drops rapidly. When the retort is about
full the water will shoot out of the pet-cock bleeder
or the vent valve on the retort lid. Close the bleeder
or valve, and at once partially open the overflow
valve E and cut back the flow of water by partially
closing valve C. The retort pressure should be kept
the same as, or slightly higher than, the processing
pressure during these operations, care being taken so
that the pressure never exceeds the processing pressure
by more than 5 pounds. Adjust the water-inlet valve
C and the overflow valve E so as to maintain the
desired flow of water through the retort at the de-
sired pressure. With practice one can soon learn the
exact method of handling valves during this stage.

Great care must be exercised to prevent excessive
pressure as the retort fills with water. The retort
operator must make every effort to keep the pressure
constant. Practice with an empty retort until de-
tails are mastered. When the retort has filled with
water it should be held at the normal operating pres-
sure and the water allowed to run through the retort
freely until the cans have been cooled, so that when
the water pressure on the retort is relieved the cans
will have no more internal pressure than is displayed
by a springer. Because the top row of cans cool
more slowly than the other rows, observation should
be made of these and determinations set up for each
product as a guide for cooling time required.

Products, such as peas, string beans, beets, and
carrots, which heat by convection will cool rapidly
and will require but very short holding periods under
pressure after the retort is full of water. There will

be cold water circulating in through the bottom and
hot water out through the overflow. When the water
flowing out of the overflow pipe is cool enough so
that the hand may be held on the pipe, the pressure
may be dropped and the retort lid removed. This
should be done gradually at the rate of 1 pound per
minute until 0 gage pressure has been reached. This
is accomplished by opening the overflow valve E
until all the pressure is out of the retort. When this
occurs the water inlet valve may be closed tightly
and the lid removed. Cooling should be continued
after the lid is removed by maintaining the above-
mentioned circulation until the cans are just warm
when placed to the cheek.

Other products which heat by conduction, such as
pumpkin or cream-style corn, will require longer
periods for cooling under pressure. This period may
vary from 20 to 25 minutes. When such products
are cooled the retort should be held at full pressure
to within 10 minutes of the end of the cooling period
and then the pressure should be dropped at the rate
indicated. It is best to drain the retort before the
cans are removed to prevent spilling water on the
floor. In pressure-cooling the following rules should
be observed:

1. Keep valves well oiled so that they work freely.

2. Fill retort full of water as rapidly as possible to prevent over-
cooking top cans. Cut back the flow of water as soon as retort is
sufficiently filled to coal cans in desired time.

3. Maintain a constant pressure in retort while it is being filled
with water. Slowly reduce pressure thereafter.

4. To prevent buckling of cans and overstraining of seams do not
relieve retort pressure too abruptly.

5. To prevent paneling at sides of cans do not cool too long under
pressure.

6. Observe the top cans for the effects of too-short cooling under
pressure and the bottom cans for the effects of too-long cooling or
too much pressure during the later stages. Too great a differential
between the results on top and bottom cans may indicate that the
retort has been too slow in filling or that too small a flow of water
has been going through while cooling.

19

Testing pressure gages

Since pressure gages sometimes get out of order
they should be tested at the beginning of the canning
season and at frequent intervals thereafter as long as
the retorts or pressure canners are in use. This is
particularly important where pressure gages are the
only means provided for determining the temperature
inside the vessel. Pressure gages are best tested by
the use of dead-weight gage testers or manometers
but since many canneries find their cost prohibitive
an inspector's test gage is often used instead. Figure
13 illustrates the assembly necessary for using an
inspector's test gage.

This method of testing gages is satisfactory pro-
vided the inspector's test gage is checked periodically
for accuracy against a dead-weight gage tester or a
manometer. State colleges and railroad shops usually
have these facilities.

If a test gage is to be used for testing pressure gages
on retorts and pressure canners it should be of the
following specifications:

1. Inspector's test gage.

2. Three-inch dial.

3. A pressure range of 0 to 30 pounds per square inch, with total
scale graduations of not less than 270°.

4. The smallest graduation not greater than }i pound per square
inch.

5. Accuracy guaranteed within one-half of 1 percent of maximum
scale graduation.

6. One-fourth-inch bottom connections.

(See partial list of manufacturers (p. 83) for suppliers of test
gages. The piping and fittings to make up the test-gage assembly
may be purchased at any hardware store.)

Figures 14 through 25 illustrate the parts of an
inspector's test-gage assembly and the method for
testing pressure gages on pressure canners or retorts
heated with a direct flame. Pressure gages on retorts
heated with steam from a boiler are tested in the
same manner except, of course, that it is not neces-
sary to put water in the retort.

Steps in testing pressure gages are:

Step 1: Fill the vessel with 2 to 3 inches of water.
Close the lid of the vessel and fasten into position.
Remove the pressure gage with a bicycle wrench.

Step 2: Replace pressure gage with %-inch T (part
2, fig. 14) and screw canner gage into top of T. In
screwing gage into T use two wrenches, as shown, to
support the T properly.

Step 3: Remove the %-inch pipe plug (part 3,
fig. 14) from the T. Screw the %-inch nipple with
union connection (part 4, fig. 14) into T, using
bicycle wrench and supporting gage with hand.

Step 4: Pour water into siphon (part 5, fig. 14) until
it comes out at the bottom. Water in the siphon pre-
vents the hot steam from entering the test gage. Keep
siphon upright to prevent loss of water.

Step 5: Mount siphon in position in the %-inch
union connection and tighten with wrench. Support
siphon with hand so as not to place strain on the pipe
connection into canner.

Step 6: Place inspector's test gage (part 6, fig. 14) in
position and tighten union connection with wrench,
supporting pipe assembly with hand.

Step 7: Apply heat to canner or retort, leaving the
vent valve or pet-cock bleeder open until steam issues
freely from the vessel. Close the vent or pet cock to
permit pressure to build up in the vessel. As the
pressure rises tap the pressure gages lightly at the
center of the dial to correct any tendency of the
pointers to stick.

Step 8: Test pressure-canner gage at 10 and 15
pounds per square inch by bringing the test gage to
these pressures and observing the corresponding read-
ing of the canner gage. Be sure the test-gage pointer
is at the correct pressure at which the test is being
made. If the test-gage pointer exceeds the correct
value, open the vent valve to release pressure. Note
carefully the reading of the canner gage at each test
pressure (10 pounds and 15 pounds per square inch).
When the test is completed, turn off the heat.

Step 9: Open vent valve wide to relieve pressure in
vessel. Do not attempt to remove testing assembly
until pressure has returned to 0. Remove test gage
first, then siphon, and then union nipple, supporting
piping assembly with hand at each step to prevent
strain on connection in lid. Leave the %-inch T and
gage assembled. By leaving this assembly in posi-
tion future tests can be made without disturbing the
pressure gage on pressure canner or retort.

INSPECTOR'S TEST GAGE.

4 STREET ELBOW-

4"PLU5-£JJ}

:lose NIPPLE
'COVER OF PRESSURE CANNER

Figure 1 3. — Inspector's test gage and piping assembly.

20

Figure 14. — Pressure canner and parts for gage tester: (1) Pressure canner with the pressure gage which is to be tested; (2) 1/4-inch T
reduced to 1/8 inch at top and bottom,- (3) 1/^-inch pipe plug,- (4) V^-inch pipe nipple with V^-inch union connection,- (5) 1/4-inch
siphon with "j/^-inch union connections,- (6) inspector's test gage with 1/4-inch union connection,- (7) 2 bicycle wrenches. (For details
of parts listed above see figure 1 3.)

Figure 15. — Step 1, removing pressure gage.

Figure 16. — Step 2, assembling gage tester.

Step 10: Screw the %-inch plug into the %-inch T on
which the pressure gage is mounted . Support pressure
gage with hand as plug is tightened with wrench.

The pressures shown by the canner gage when the
test gage was at 10 pounds and 15 pounds per square
inch are the pressures which the canner gage should
show to give 10 pounds and 15 pounds, respectively,
inside the canner. For example, if a canner gage
registered 11 pounds when the test gage showed 10

pounds and 16 pounds when the test gage showed 15
pounds, that canner gage must read 11 and 16 pounds,
respectively, in order to have 10 pounds and 15 pounds
per square inch inside the canner. The readings of
the canner gage which the test showed to give 10
pounds and 15 pounds within the canner should be
recorded on a linen tag and the tag attached to the
gage. Pressure gages which are in error more than
2 pounds should be replaced.

689041° — 46-

21

Figure 17. — Step 3, assembling gage tester.

Figure 19. — Step 5, assembling gage tester.

Figure 20. — Step 6, assembling gage tester.

U_ i*.

Figure 18. — Step 4, assembling gage tester.

Figure 21. — Step 7, testing pressure gage.

22

Figure 22. — Step 8, testing pressure gage.

Figure 24. — Step 10, completing gage assembly on pressure
vessel.

Figure 23. — Step 9, removing gage tester.

Figure 25. — Record and use of test results.

23

Open-process tanks

Although retorts may be used for processing acid
products by the water-bath method, it is advisable
to provide open-process tanks for this purpose.
Greater flexibility in handling both acid and nonacid
products during peak production periods is thus
afforded. Each plant should have at least one open-
process tank of the same size as the largest retort.
By having them of the same size the inset crates of
both vessels can be used interchangeably. At least
two inset crates should be provided for each open-
process tank. The tank, made of galvanized sheet
metal, should be so constructed that the inset crate
will rest on a perforated false bottom located slightly
above the perforated steam pipe at the bottom of
the tank. (See fig. 26.)

Such an arrangement permits the free circulation of
water under the cans, necessary for the proper heat pen-
etration, when processing. As with all open vessels
fitted with standard-type pipe connections, steam is
supplied to the open-process tank from the high-
pressure line. A %-inch line is adequate and may be
connected to a perforated steam pipe as shown in
the drawing or to a closed-coil system. An overflow
pipe line should be provided at the top of the tank
to keep the water at the proper level and to prevent
spilling over that might otherwise occur when the
water is at the rolling boil. The tank should be
installed in line with the retorts and be properly
centered so that the crates may be removed with the
overhead hoist. It should be supported on a frame
of the proper height to permit the installation of the
steam pipe and drain. Water is supplied to the tank
through a faucet or hose arrangement conveniently
located near the tank.

Open-process tanks and retorts used for processing
acid products should be filled with sufficient water to
cover the cans. It is important that the water be
boiling when the cans to be processed are added and
that the timing of the water-bath process is not begun
until the water has returned to the boiling point. In
using steam-heated process tanks, care must be taken
not to mistake the agitation caused by the steam for
the actual boiling of the water. The water must be
kept boiling throughout the processing period as any

OVERFLOW-

U. — WATER 5UPPLY

VALVE-

PERFORATED STEAM PIPE

FALSE BOTTOM WITH 1"H0LE5
SPACED 4" ON CENTERS

FALSE-BOTTOM SUPPORT
STEAM VALVE

STEAM SUPPLY

r— IjOVERFLOW ,

^ i Co

^TOP OPEN

.J "cold WATER-

r

SIDE ELEVATION

-I4 DRAIN

FRONT ELEVATION

Figure 27. — Detail of cooling tank.

drop in temperature will cause the processing time
given in this publication to be insufficient. The time
for processing should be recorded on a pad of clock
face specifically used for that tank. At the end of the
the processing period the steam is turned off and the
cans are removed for cooling.

.ooling

tank

Figure 26. — Detail of open-process tank.

To make the most efficient use of retorts a cooling
tank should be provided for cooling products in cans
of a size that do not require cooling under pressure.
Metal cooling tanks are preferable because they are
easy to keep clean and may be readily moved if neces-
sary. Cooling-tank capacity should be sufficient to
accommodate one crate for every three retorts or open-
process tanks. The tank should be provided with a
cold-water inlet at the bottom and an overflow pipe
slightly above the height of the crate to carry the
heated water to the drain. The overflow pipe should
be placed at the opposite end from the inlet and should
be sufficiently large to carry away the water displaced
by the crate of cans when it is placed in the tank. The
drain at the bottom of the tank should be of the same
size as the overflow pipe. The cooling tank should be
installed near the retorts and open-process tanks and
directly under the overhead track and hoist so that
crates of cans to be cooled mav be conveniently
handled. It should be mounted on a frame sufficiently
high to permit the installation of a drain. The tank
should be slightly elevated at the water-inlet end to
facilitate drainage. (See fig. 27.)

The tank should be filled with cold water before the
crate of cans is placed in it for cooling. Admit cold
water to the cooling tank throughout the cooling
period to assure the circulation of water necessary for
rapid cooling. Remove the cans from the tank as
soon as they are cooled to the proper temperature.
(See p. 59.) The tank should be completely drained
and thoroughly cleaned at the end of each day's
operation and oftener if necessary.

Chain hoist and track

A differential geared-type chain hoist of %- to %-ton
capacity attached to an overhead track is necessary for
lifting crates in and out of retorts, open-process tanks,
and the cooling tank. (See fig. 28.) A hoist of %-ton
capacity should be used with the larger retorts in order

24

to provide the needed safety margin . The track should
be centered directly over those vessels and should be
extended over the areas where a hoist is needed to
facilitate the handling of loaded crates. A heavy-
duty garage-door track, hay track, I-beam, or a
standard canner's rail and trolley may be used. The
track should be installed high enough for the hoist to
lift a basket clear of the vessels it is to serve. A sim-
ilar hoist and track is recommended for those plants
processing meats in order to facilitate the handling of
carcasses.

Steam-jacketed kettles

One or more steam-jacketed kettles should be pro-
vided in each plant for rendering lard, making fruit
butters and soup stock, and preheating such products
as corn, apples, and pumpkin. They should be of
stainless steel or aluminum to permit their use for any
product. Kettles of 10- to 40-gallon capacity are most
practical for use in community canneries. Either a
stationary type, such as that shown in figure 29, or a
tilting or trunnion type may be used. Tbey should be
located near the sealer since in most instances products
heated in these kettles are filled directly into cans and
sealed. They should be placed so that they are acces-
sible from all sides. A pressure-reducing valve should
be installed in the steam line leading to the kettle and
should be set at the pressure recommended by the
manufacturer of the vessel. A globe valve is provided
between the pressure-reducing valve and the kettle for
admitting steam to the kettle. In order to make the
proper adjustment of the pressure-reducing valve and
to know at all times the pressure of the steam that is
being admitted to the kettle, a steam gage must be
provided between the globe valve and the kettle. The
pressure range of the gage should be such that it will
measure the maximum operating pressure of the kettle.

A safety valve is usually provided on the kettle, as
shown in figure 29. Where this provision has not
been made, a safety valve must be installed in the

Figure 29. — Stationary-type steam-jacketed kettle.

TROLLEY

GEARED HOIST

CHAIN

HOOK

Figure 28. — Assembly of differential-geared hoisf.

steam line between the globe valve and the kettle.
This valve should be set at a pressure slightly higher
than that of the pressure-reducing valve and within
the safety limits of the pressure at which the kettle
can be operated.

Steam-cooking coil

One or more steam-cooking coils, often referred to
as brine tank coils, should be provided in a community
cannery to supplement the steam-jacketed kettles.
(See fig. 30.) They should be of a size to fit into a
stockpot or kettle for preheating quantities of prod-
uce which are insufficient to warrant the use of a
steam-jacketed kettle. They are convenient to use
in that the inlet and outlet are over the side of the
kettle and permanent attachments to the kettle are
not required, thus making it easy to transfer them from
one kettle to another. They should be supplied with

25

steam from a low-pressure line. It will be necessary
to have a safety valve and a pressure gage between
the pressure-reducing valve and the steam line leading
to the cooking coils. In order to conserve the number
of pressure-reducing valves required in the plant, this
installation may be made in the low-pressure line
leading to the steam-jacketed kettles.

For convenience in operation it is well to provide a
low bench or table for the stockpots in which the
cooking coils are used. An insulated mat should be
provided under the kettle to protect the surface of
the table or bench. Since these coils come in direct
contact with the food and are usually made of copper
tubing, they should be tinned. In some instances,
particularly where large kettles are used, it may be
desirable to have a coil with double loops in order
to get more even heat throughout the product. By
specifying the kind of produce to be heated, the size
of the kettle to be used, the temperature to which the
products are to be heated, and the amount of steam
pressure available, manufacturers can determine the
number of loops required in the coil and the type of
coil that would be most satisfactory.

Sealers

A can sealer is a machine designed to form the
double seam which attaches the cover to the can in
such a manner as to effect a hermetic closure. Models

vary widely in design, speed of operation, and a
number of other details but they all have in common
the following units essential in forming and rolling a
double seam.

The chuck is machined to fit snugly into the recessed
cover or countersink of the can and serves the dual
purpose of steadying the can and acting as an anvil
against which the seam is formed. In some machines
the chuck is slightly knurled for traction which
enables it to rotate the can.

The seaming rolls are divided into two classes
according to their purposes. The first-operation roll has
a groove which is semicircular and serves the purpose
of turning the edge of the cover over the top flange of
the can, thereby putting the cover hook and the can
hook, as they are known, in proper position for seal-
ing. The finished seam made by the first operation
roll has a rounded contour. (See figs. 31 and 32.)

The second-operation roll is very similar to the first in
that it bears the same relationship to the chuck, and
that it is activated by the same force which may be
either manually or automatically controlled. Its
purpose is to smooth down or flatten the loosely
formed layers of tin plate of the rounded seam made
by the first-operation roll. For this purpose the
seaming groove in the second-operation roll has a
shallower and flatter groove contour than the first-
operation roll. (See fig. 33-)

4 CONDENSATE

k STEAM 5UPPY

NON CORROSIVE-METAL STOCKPOT

PLAN

VALVE

VALVf

• ",

CONDENSATE

{ STEAM SUPPLY

PIPE BRACE

TINNED COPPER PIPE
LE

Figure 30. — Stockpot and steam cooking coil.

■^— HANDL

I0-0R 15-GALL0N N0NCORROSIVE
METAL STOCKPOT

PIPE BRACE
1" TINNED COPPER COIL

L<>IN5ULATED MAT

-TABLE TOP

FRONT ELEVATION

26

FIRST -OPERATION ROLL

CAN BODY

5E.AMER CHUCK
CAN COVER
COUNTERSINK OF CAN COVER

Figure 31. — Position of can and cover in relation to sealer part
before seaming.

The base plate is a base or platform on which the can
is supported during the seaming operation. In most
machines it is free running and has no effect on driving
the can, its only purpose being to give the can the
proper pressure when it is raised into position.

Each of these parts is so machined that it may be
adjusted to assure a perfect seam.

The size and number of sealers needed are determined
by the anticipated daily output of the plant and the
sizes of cans that are to be used. It is false economy
to provide other than well-constructed sealers . Heavy-
duty bench-type motor-driven sealers, such as shown

FIRST-OPERATION ROLL

CAN
BODY

SEAMER
CHUCK

CAN
COVER

COUNTERSINK
OF CAN COVER

Figure 32. — Innermost position of
first-operation roll in relation to
chuck for forming first-operation
seam.

SECOND -OPERATION ROLL

SEAMER
CHUCK-

Figure 33.— Innermost position of
second-operation roll in relation
to chuck for forming second-
operation seam.

CAN COVER

COUNTERSINK
OF CAN COVER

CAN
BODY

27

Figure 34. — Heavy-duty bench-type motor-driven sealers.

in figure 34, are recommended for use in community
canneries. Such sealers are capable of sealing 5 or 6
cans per minute. At least 2 sealers of this type should
be provided for plants having a capacity of from 1,000
to 2,000 cans per day. Plants having a capacity of
from 2,000 to 3,000 cans per day should have 3 such
sealers. Community canneries processing food in No.
10 cans for school-lunch purposes will require a heavy-
duty sealer for sealing this size of can.

A bench-type motor-driven sealer is desirable for
use in any size of plant. Hand-operated sealers may
be used in very small plants but their limitations
should be recognized. They are laborious to operate
and even when operators are changed frequently, it is
difficult to get capacity production from them. How-
ever, one or more hand-operated sealers should be pro-
vided in each plant for emergency use when the power
is temporarily off or to replace motor-driven models
that may have to be removed from service for repair or
adjustment. Figure 35 illustrates a heavy-duty hand-
operated sealer suitable for use in community canneries.

Can sealers should be located as near the exhaust
box as possible, and they should be fastened securely
to a sturdy table provided for that purpose. The table
should be large enough to provide space for marking
cans and should be of a height suitable for the type of
sealer used. A table 34 inches high is needed for
motor-driven sealers although a table 32 inches high
is best for hand sealers. The table top should be of
2-inch lumber and should extend at least 2 inches from
the frame of the table in order to provide space for
securing the sealer.

Operation of sealers (double seamers)

The sealing of the can is the operation that safe-
guards its contents, and the success of the entire
canning project depends on this step. The directions
for operating and adjusting sealers given in this pub-
lication are based on those contained in a research
report by Jarvis (#), of the United States Department

Figure 35. — Heavy-duty hand-operated sealer.

28

of the Interior, and on information contained in
Baumgartner's Canned Foods (3).

Sealers should be operated in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions. They become worn by
constant use and may get out of order, and their
adjustment should be checked at least daily. This
is best done at the beginning of the day by sealing
several cans and examining the can seams. A careful
visual examination of the contour of the double seam
should be made first. Its outline should be free from
sharp edges and it should not be beaded or rounded.

Rounded seams are usually the result of excessive
rolling by the first-operation roll. In this instance,
the strong curl that is formed resists the subsequent
pressure of the second-operation roll. The top of the
seam should be distinctly but not excessively flattened.
Sharp edges at the top inside of the seam, known as
"cut overs," are most frequently found on the cover
where it coincides with the lock seam of the can body.
They may be caused by a worn or chipped chuck,
incorrectly set second-operation roll, or other mal-
adjustments, and if cuts are deep enough to cut
through the plate of the can, leakage may occur and
spoilage result.

Spurs (or lips) may also cause leaker spoilage, and
they are most frequently observed at the overlap,
where the rolled seam coincides with the soldered
side seam. They appear as protrusions at the base
of the seam and usually result from failure of the
seaming rolls to fold completely the cover hook
under the can hook at one or more points. Among
the causes of "spurring" the most common are:
The first-operation roll being too tight; too much
base plate pressure; maladjustment of rolls to the
chuck; and irregular curl on can ends. There should
not be any marked variation in the thickness of any
given seam except for the normal increased thickness
where the rolled seam coincides with the side seam.
By comparing the seam made by the sealer with the
factory-made seam of the can, noticeable differences
can easily be detected.

Examination of the can sea

m

In order to confirm opinions formed as the result of
the external examination of the can seam and to deter-
mine the sealer adjustment necessary to correct seam-
ing operations, a section of the can seam should be
stripped and examined. Leakage may occur from the
defective engagement of the can and cover hooks.
The lack of proper engagement may be due to one or
both hooks being short or the hooks may be of normal
length but not flattened tightly together. Figures 36
to 40, inclusive, illustrate the steps involved in filing
a can seam in order to separate the hooks for examina-
tion and measurement. These steps are:

Step 1 . With the edge of a flat file held at a 45-degree
angle cut a notch completely through the double seam
about 1 inch from the body seam. Examine the notch
with a magnifying lens and note whether there are
pin-point holes at the top of the seam or at the bottom.
The absence of a pin-point hole or dark speck in the

Figure 36. — Step 1, filing a can seam.

cross section of the seam at either of these points indi-
cates that the base plate and the first-operation roll are
properly adjusted. A noticeable pin-point hole near
the bottom of the crosscut section indicates that the
base plate pressure needs to be increased. A notice-
able pin-point hole near the top of the crosscut section
may indicate that the first-operation roll is too loose.
A small hole at this point is of no importance. If the
layers of tin are plainly visible in the crosscut section
the second-operation roll is too loose.

Step 2. Starting at the notch, file away the top out-
side edge of the double seam for a distance of 2 or 3
inches until the second layer of metal," the can hook,"
is reached. Care must be taken to avoid filing into
the top of the can hook. The area filed should extend
beyond the body seam of the can. Hold the file at a
30-degree angle.

Step 3. Starting at the filed notch, tap sharply with
the flat face of the file on the cut edge of the seam to
disengage the cover hook and leave the can hook ex-
posed. The tenacity with which the cover hook is
held in place is an indication of the tightness of the
seam.

Step 4. Bend cover hook up, as shown, for observa-
tion and measuring of both the can hook and the
cover hook.

With a metal ruler, with a point %-inch wide and
less than 0.010-inch thick, measure the can hook,
cover hook, and the countersink at several points. The

Figure 37. — A, Correct seam. B, Incorrect seam.

689641° — 46-

29

Figure 40. — Step 4, filing a can seam.

Figure 38. — Step 2, filing a can seam.

Figure 39. — Step 3, filing a can seam.

length of the can hook should closely approximate
that of the cover hook and should measure slightly
over Kg inch. (See fig. 41.)

The hooks should be free from wrinkles or folds.
These indicate seam looseness. On a properly flat-
tened seam, all wrinkles should be ironed out fairly
smooth by the second-operation roll. Figure 42
shows four degrees of wrinkles. A good seam will
correspond to the 0 and 1 stages.

COUNTERSINK

SCALE

Figure 41. — Metal ruler and method of measuring can hook,
cover hook, and countersink.

'

teiii -^

Tt

0 I

A

2

1

3

Figure 42. — Waves in cover hook.

30

The countersink should be slightly over }{ inch in
depth. A deeper countersink usually indicates that
the chuck has been set too low in relation to the
rolls. This may be responsible for short cover hooks.
A shallow countersink may result from a worn chuck
flange.

The chief cause of can-hook shortness is lack of
base-plate pressure. It may also occur if there is too
much clearance between seaming rolls and chuck.
Another cause is short plate that results when body
blanks are cut too narrow or when the body flange
is uneven. It should be noted than the can hook at
the overlap of the side seam is sometimes slightly
short, the upper flap of metal being shorter than the
under flap at their lower edges. It is equally im-
portant that hooks should not be too long. Exces-
sive base-plate pressure, resulting in a long can hook,
causes a corresponding decrease in the length of the
cover hook and consequently affects the degree of
engagement of the two hooks. It also induces
"spur" formation.

When the cover hook is short, this is usually
because of failure of the first-operation roll to tuck
the cover far enough under the flange of the body.
As it has to be bent round two thicknesses of metal
at the side seam, the cover hook is invariably slightly
short at this point. It seems highly probable chat
many cases of leakage in which mechanical defects
are not obvious arise through this "normal" short-
ening of the hooks at the side-seam overlap.

To make sure than the seaming operations are
uniform, it is well to inspect the seam occasionally
around the entire circumference of the can. To do
this, pull off the entire top of the can with a pair
of pliers, starting at the point where it was originally
filed, for checking a section of the seam. The entire
cover hook and can hook may then be disengaged
and further inspected.

Adjusting sealers

The test wire or gage provided with most bench-
type sealers may be used for making the preliminary
adjustments of the seaming rolls. Instructions for
making these adjustments are provided with the
sealer. The first-operation roll should be checked
independently of the second-operation roll, and the
machine should be manipulated by hand in each
instance. The wire test on the first-operation roll
should be made at the time the roll is at its innermost
position. This is usually just before it is ready to
recede. The chuck should be so alined that the top
flange of the first-operation roll just slips over the
edge of the chuck disk without rubbing. The
chuck should turn freely and yet show no space
between its upper edge and the roll flange. Depend-
ing on the type of sealer, adjust the chuck up or
down or adjust the seaming rolls so that the chuck
and seaming rolls are in perfect alinement. For
correctly adjusted first-operation roll, see figure 43,
and for correct first-operation seam, see figure 44.

FIRST-ROLL. FLANGE JUST
PASSES OVER EDGE OF CHUCK-

FIRST ROLL

SEAMER CHUCK

Figure 43. — Correctly adjusted first-operation rol

Figure 44. — Correct first-operation seam.

ROLL-FLANGE SET TOO HIGH ABOVE EDGE
OF CHUCK RE5ULTS IN CUT-OVER SEAMS7

SEAMER CHUCK

CHUCK TOO HIGH ROLL-FLANGE EDGE

WEARS CHUCK AND ROLL FLANGE UNDULY?

SEAMER CHUCK

Figure 45. — Incorrectly adjusted first-operation roll: A, Roll-
flange set too high; B, Chuck too high.

Figure 46. — First seam operation: A, Too loose,- B, Too tigbt.

If the roll is set too high the can top will be rolled
slightly over the edge of the chuck. If the chuck
should be set too high the roll flanges will rub the
edges of the chuck severely and in a short time the
rolls and chuck will have to be replaced.

Figure 45 illustrates incorrectly adjusted first-
operation roll.

Figure 46 illustrates first-operation seams that result
when the first-operation roll is too tight or too loose.

In setting the first-operation roll for the proper dis-
tance of its groove from the chuck face, use the larger
sized test wire provided for this purpose, inserting it
between the roll groove and the chuck face. Set the
roll so that a firm, steady pressure must be exerted to
insert and withdraw the wire. Check the base-plate
pressure by putting a can with cover in the machine

31

as for sealing. Adjust the base plate into position for
sealing. While the can is still in position, run it
through the sealer by hand to test the adjustments of
the first-operation roll and the base plate. The metal
of the cover should be tucked up closely against the
can body, forming an almost round bead. It should
not be so tightly rolled as to be almost solid or like
a piece of wire.

If the first-operation roll is found satisfactory the
second-operation roll may be set in seaming position.
The procedure followed is practically the same as for
the first-operation roll. The height of the chuck when
set properly for the first roll should also be correct for
the second roll. Turn the machine by hand until the
second roll is at its closest point to the chuck. This
occurs just before seaming is completed. Insert the
smaller test wire between the roll groove and the
chuck face, and adjust the second-operation roll until
a firm, steady pressure must be exerted to insert and
withdraw the wire. Repeat the test of putting an
empty can with cover through the machine but in
this instance complete the seaming process and care-
fully note the appearance of the seam. Do not depend
entirely on the test wires for final adjustment but test
the finished seam by the filing method previously
described.

Exhaust boxes

An exhaust box is used for heating the contents of
the can to the recommended center temperature for
sealing. It must be so designed and constructed as
to heat products evenly and in a minimum of time.
Exhaust boxes heated with steam may be either
tunnel-conveyor or batch-type. However, for econ-
omy and adaptability to handling varied products, a
batch-type box, such as that illustrated in figure 47,
is recommended for community canneries.

The steam is supplied from a high-pressure steam
line. Water, filled into the box to a specified height,
is heated by the steam passing through the closed
pipes of the box. The pipe arrangement shown in
figure 47 has proved an efficient means of getting even
heat distribution throughout the box and is preferred
to the U-coil arrangement sometimes used in com-
munity canneries. The spreader line at the end of
the box where the steam is admitted is installed
above the water line. Steam condensation is thus
retarded and the heating efficiency of the steam is
enhanced. A sloped arrangement of the pipes, lead-
ing to the condensation pick-up line outside the box,
facilitates drainage of the condensate from the steam
pipes.

The 3- by 4-foot box, shown in figure 47 will ac-
commodate approximately 80 No. 3 cans. Two
boxes of this size will exhaust sufficient products in
1 loading to fill 1 large retort or 4 small ones.

A batch-type exhaust box should be constructed of
galvanized metal encased in wood, or provided with
other insulation to protect workers. Such insulation
will also prevent heat losses that would otherwise
occur. To further prevent heat losses the box
should be provided with a lid constructed so as to

prevent condensate from dripping into the cans of
produce. The lid, if hinged at the center, as shown
in figure 47, may be easily lifted by a rope attached
to a pulley overhead. A false bottom made of heavy-
mesh wire should be provided in the box to allow
for circulation of the water underneath the cans.
A drain should be provided in the center bottom of
the box and should be fitted with a removable over-
flow pipe to keep the water line approximately 2
inches below the tops of the cans. The end of the
overflow pipe fitting into the drain should be so
threaded that it may be adjusted up or down according
to the size of the cans being used. This adjustment
can be made easily by providing a handle on the top
of the overflow pipe.

In order that patrons' produce may be kept separate
it is recommended that can trays be used and properly
identified with the patron's number. Several trays
may be required for each patron's produce. In order
that the cans may be heated in a minimum of time,
the water in the box should be at the boiling tempera-
ture when the can trays are placed in the box. Natu-
rally the temperature will drop somewhat at this time.
After the water returns to a boil the globe valve, re-
gulating the steam supply to the box, should be ad-
justed so that the water will not bubble over into the
cans of produce. To assure the best quality of canned
produce the exhausting period required for heating
the cans to the recommended center-can closing tem-
perature should be kept to a minimum. For fruits
and vegetables canned in a liquid medium, this period
should not exceed 10 minutes. Too-long exhausting
periods will result in an overcooked product. If an
exhaust box is incapable of producing the desired re-
sults, it should be corrected so that the canning pro-
cedure recommended can be followed. In no instance
should canning procedures be adjusted to fit poor
equipment.

Cans should be sealed promptly when the exhaust-
ing process is completed. Remove one tray at a time
and only as it can be handled at the sealer. After the
center-can temperature is reached, the water in the box
should be kept at the simmering point until all trays
of cans are removed for sealing.

The exhaust box must be drained, thoroughly
cleaned, and flushed at the end of each day's operation.
The lid should be adjusted in an open position so that
the box will dry and be thoroughly aired before the
next day's run.

Wash sinks

Double-compartment sinks 2 feet wide, 4 feet long,
and 18 inches deep are adequate for washing produce.
They should be of metal for convenience in keeping
them clean. A sink should be provided at the end of
each preparation table and should he supported on a
frame high enough to bring the top of the sink level
writh the table top. Additional sinks will need to be
provided near the preparation area, as shown in
figure 2, so that a number of patrons can be accom-
modated at one time and bottlenecks in preparation

32

SPREADER PIPE. ABOVE WATER LINE

FALSE BOTTOM 1 SQUARE OPEN-MESH
NO.^-GAGE GALVANIZ1ED-WIRE WEAVE

-GATE VALVE

PLAN-WITH COVER REMOVED

^STRAINER

-THERMOSTATIC
TRAP

t STEAM PIPES

DOUBLE-FLANGE WASHER-GASKET SEAL

NO. 18-GAGE GALVANIZED SHEET-STEEL TANK

SLOPED FLOW CONDENSATION PICKUP PIPE

5IDE ELEVATION

5ECTI0NAL END ELEVATION

Figure 47. — Batch-type exhaust box.

activities avoided. One such sink will be needed for
washing pots and pans. Additional wash sinks or a
hose in the rough-preparation area will cut down the
demands on the sinks in the cannery proper. When
washing produce, it is well to handle it in small
quantities in order to assure thorough cleansing.
Water should be changed frequently. All wash sinks
should have adequate drains protected with strainers
to prevent clogging. At the end of the day the sinks
should be thoroughly drained and cleaned to prevent
rusting. Where large quantities of produce are to be

handled, it may be well to purchase a rotary vegetable
washer or to provide a large wash tank in the receiving
area.

Blanch and scald tanks

Tanks of heavy galvanized metal, equipped with
drains and closed-coil steam pipes for heating water,
are essential for scalding and blanching operations.
(See fig. 48.)

One tank should be provided at the end of each fill
table adjacent to the cold-dip tank. It should be

33

supported on a frame sufficiently high to bring the top
of the tank in line with the top of the fill table and
supplied with steam from the high-pressure line.
Tanks 22 inches square and 22 inches deep are adequate
for blanching or scalding operations. A tank of this
size is large enough to permit the introduction of the
produce into the tank without changing the temper-
ature of the water more than a few degrees. Blanch
and scald tanks are used interchangeably, depending
on the needs. Water used for blanching and scalding
should be changed as often as is necessary to keep it
clean and to avoid recontamination from the bacteria
removed in the process. The tanks should be thor-
oughly drained and flushed at the end of each day's
operation. In those plants which process quantity
lots of such produce as sweetpotatoes, peaches, and
grapefruit it is well to provide a similar tank arrange-
ment for lye-bath peeling. This tank should be
convenient to the preparation tables.

Cold-dip tanks

A cold-dip tank of the same size and height as the
blanch or scald tank should be installed adjacent to it
at the end of each fill table. The cold-dip tank should
be of galvanized metal and be equipped with a drain
and a cold-water inlet. The water should be changed
as often as necessary to keep it clean and cold. At the
end of each day's operation the tanks should be
drained, thoroughly washed, and steamed.

Tanks for the medium

A 15- to 25-gallon tank should be provided on each
fill table, adjacent to the exhaust box, for the medium
used in the cans of produce. Because the tank is used

for brines as well as for sirups and water, it should
be of noncorrosive metal. The tank should be sup-
ported on a frame sufficiently high to accommodate
the tallest can under the spigot arrangement leading
off from the bottom of the tank. (See fig. 49.)

-WATER SUPPLY

STEAM SUPPLY

DRAIN

pipe support
condensate:

I STEAM SUPPLY
STEAM VALVE

NO. 18-GAGE GALVANIZED
SHEET-STEEL TANK

PIPE SUPPORT

§;" CONDENSATE VALVE

DRAIN VALVE

FRONT ELEVATION

Fisure 48. — Blanch or scald tank.

r-Jf CONDENSATE.
WATE.R — — Jl VALVty / rVALVE

0=^ 4^| Irt" £ STEAM SUPPLY

FAUCET

15 TO 2.5 GALL0N5
CORROSION-RESISTANT TANK

CAN FILL VALVE

FILL-PIPE SUPPORT

n

PIPE BRACE
TINNED COPPER PIPE

PIPE BRACE

l" TINNED COPPER
PIPE COIL

CORROSION-RESISTANT PIPE Rgure 4o._Medium tank and steam coi

/CAN FILL VALVE.

3 FLAT-BAR LEGS

FILL TABLE

^J

34

The tank is heated by a steam coil such as is used
in precooking foods in stockpots. It is supplied with
steam from a low-pressure line. At the end of each
day the tank should be emptied and thoroughly
cleaned to avoid contamination and rusting. It
should be rinsed with cold water before using.

Preparation and fill tables

Standard-sized tables, 4 feet wide, 10 feet long, and
34 inches high, should be provided for the preparation
of the produce and the filling of the cans. (See fig. 50.)

A table of this size accommodates four persons at
each side and is wide enough to permit the use of two
preparation pans by each person. It is recommended
that the table top be made of rough lumber covered
with galvanized sheet steel. A rolled-edge around the
sides of the table will help to keep the preparation
area sanitary. Table tops may also be finished with
masonite, or waterproofed plywood, or they may be
made of tongue-and-groove flooring painted with a
good grade of enamel or deck paint. Unpainted
wooden table tops are difficult to keep clean and are
therefore not recommended. Linoleum table tops may
be used but they do not stand up under the treatment
necessary to keep the table tops clean.

Meat-cutting tables

In those rural areas where a considerable amount of
meat is canned it may be advisable to provide meat-
cutting tables. However, hardwood meat boards
placed on top of the preparation or fill tables are
satisfactory for cutting and boning meat. It is best
to have meat tables 32 inches high as this gives a good
working leverage in handling and cutting meat. They
should be 4 feet wide and from 6 to 10 feet long.
They will need to be sturdily built. The top should
be made of 2- by 4-inch hardwood. In order to assure
a smooth surface free from cracks, it should be bolted
at several points along the length of the table. The
bolts should extend through the boards the entire
width of the table. The bolts may be threaded on
one or both ends and fitted with nuts and washers so
that the table top may be tightened. The top may
be made so that it can be reversed on the table frame.
It need not be attached to the frame as the weight of
the top is sufficient to hold it in place.

Other equipment

Cutting boards

Cutting boards of hardwood are needed for general
use. They will conserve table tops and aid in handling
produce in a sanitary manner.

Blanching baskets

Blanching baskets, approximately 16 inches in di-
ameter and 18 inches deep, such as those illustrated in
figure 51, should be provided for blanching or scalding

^

4"« 4"-

£- 10"

L

i^V

3

ROUGH LUMBER. TOP COVERED WITH OALV.
3HEET-STEEL WITH ROLLEO EOOES

u

FRONT ELEVATION

5IDE ELEVATION

Figure 50. — Detail of preparation or fill table

Figure 51. — Blanching baskets: (A), Perforated galvanized-
metal bucket; (B), galvanized hardware-cloth basket; (C), gal-
vanized hardware-cloth basket.

produce. Galvanized wire potato-picking baskets of
one-half-bushel capacity and lined with No. 6 mesh
hardware cloth also make excellent baskets.

Can trays

Trays made of wire are indispensable for carrying
cans to the wash tank, fill table, and exhaust box and
for keeping patrons' cans separated in the exhaust box.
For ease in handling, trays should be only large enough
to hold from 15 to 18 No. 3 cans.

Canning thermometers

Mercury-filled canning thermometers in metal car-
rying cases, with temperature ranges of 0° to 220° F.,
are needed for checking center-can temperatures. (See
fig. 52.) Every canning unit should have a minimum
of two thermometers and two additional graduated
glass tubes for replacements.

Dish

pans

Dishpans made of aluminum, tin, or enamel, of
12- to 16-quart size, should be provided for preparation
of produce. The number of dishpans needed will be
determined by the number of patrons that can be
accommodated at preparation tables. An average of
two dishpans should be allowed for each patron.

Figure 52. — Canning thermometer and metal carrying case.

35

Cutlery

Although most community canneries require that
patrons provide their own cutlery for the preparation
of produce, it is recommended that canneries purchase
such equipment in order to standardize the type and
size best suited for their use. All cutlery should be of
high-quality carbon steel of an approved design.

Unpainted handles are preferred. Blades should be
riveted to handles. Sharpening steels should be
equipped with guards. Stainless-steel kitchen cutlery
is not desirable since it does not retain a sharp edge
under canning conditions. Accidents are reduced to
a minimum when the proper cutting tool is used.
Figure 53 illustrates cutlery of good design for the
preparation of fruits, vegetables, and meats.

L

J

10

Figure 53. — Cutlery: 1 , Skinning knife, 6-inch blade; 2, scimitar steak knife, 1 0-inch blade; 3, scimitar boning knife, 6-inch blade,- 4,
butcher knife, 6- to 12-inch blade,- 5, paring knife or chicken knife, 3J'j-inch blade,- 6, knee-action vegetable peeler,- 7, tomato-
peeling knife- 8, pear-coring hook; 9, peeling and coring knife,- 1 0, fine-cut knife steel, 1 0 to 12 inches long,- 1 1 , meat saw, ^2-inch
blade, 18 to 22 inches long.

36

Can-seam-inspection equipment

Gl

oves

Mill files of 10-inch length should be made available
in canning units, for use in filing can seams. A
small magnifying lens should also be provided for
inspecting the seam. A metal ruler with a point
}s-inch wide and less than 0.010-inch thick is needed
for measuring the can hook, cover hook, and counter-
sink. Metal files are usually available from can
companies.

Can-straightening device

A can-straightening device should be provided in
every cannery in order that those cans that have
become misshapen or damaged in shipment may be
straightened and used. Badly damaged cans should
be discarded. This is particularly true where the
soldered side seam has been damaged. Can-straight-
ening devices are available from most suppliers of
canning equipment.

3'

-o"

(at^

\ (ftfr

3)

z.

frh-

T T-pi

-0

\Qr-

--4^

3

PLAN

Z"x4'

2"M"

[>clE^l U^\ E^l 15^1 F^l

4 SWIVtL CASTERS

SIDE ELEVATION

Figure 54. — Utility truck.

Rubber-covered canvas gloves are needed for han-
dling hot cans at the sealer and for loading cans into re-
tort crates. They should be loose fitting at the wrist so
that they can be removed quickly in case of emergency.
The use of gloves saves much time in handling hot
containers. However, employees and patrons should
be cautioned that continual use of gloves may cause
hands to become tender and susceptible to infection.

Utility trucks

Utility trucks are necessary for moving produce,
cans, and equipment. They may be of metal or wood
and should have ball-bearing wheels to facilitate the
movement of heavy loads. The frame should be
substantial enough to support a retort crate filled with
cans. (See fig. 54.)

Garbage cans

Enough refuse and trash containers should be pro-
vided to give sufficient capacity for at least 1 day's
accumulation of refuse. These should be of metal
with close-fitting covers and should be watertight.
Galvanized buckets are needed for general use, such
as carrying out garbage.

Steam and water hose

Steam hose should be provided near the equipment
that needs to be cleaned by steam. Steam hose may
also be used for heating water. Water hose is needed
for cleaning floors, tables, and similar equipment.

Fire extinguishers

If wood or coal is used as fuel and no oil, gas, or
gasoline is used in the building, a soda-acid type of
extinguisher will be adequate, or if a reliable source
of water is available, a suitable pump or hose will be
sufficient. If oil or gas is used as fuel, two or more
15-pound Dugas dry-powder-type hand fire extin-
guishers should be installed in addition to the water
extinguishers. Installation of any safety device
should be checked by a safety engineer.

Tools for adjusting and repairing equipment

Tools for adjusting and repairing equipment should
be kept in a definite place so they may be readily avail-
able when needed. Loss of tools may mean loss of
production hours. Tools required for adjusting and
repairing equipment should include:

1 hammer
1 saw
1 square

1 pipe vise

2 18-inch pipe wrenches
1 set of bicycle wrenches

1 set of pipe-threading equip-
ment
1 6-inch screw driver
1 12-inch screw driver
1 hack saw and blades

689641°— 46 6

37

Replacement parts

A supply of extra parts should be kept on hand at
the cannery to replace or repair those parts that may
break or wear out quickly under constant use. This
will avoid delay in operation. The following items
should be the minimum kept in stock:

For retorts

Wing nuts, 1 extra for each retorc.

Eye bolts, 1 extra for each retort.

Gaskets, 1 extra for each 2 retorts of same size.

Pressure gage, 1 extra for each 3 retorts.

Safety valve, 1 extra.

Thermometer, 1 extra.

For pressure canners
Wing nuts, 1 extra for each canner used.
Gasket, 1 extra for each canner.
Safety valve, 1 extra.
Pressure gage, 1 extra for each 5 canners.
Safety plug, 1 extra.

For sealers

Seaming rolls, 1 set for each sealer.
Sealer arms, 1 set.

Adjusting screws, springs, and hand washers or rubber pads as
required for base plates.

Other items needed will depend on the type of
sealer used. Sealers should be given periodic inspec-
tion for worn parts.

For hollers
2 water-gage glasses and packing washers.
2 sets of hand plate gaskets.
1 fusible plug.

For plumbing

Valve seats for all types of replaceable seat valves.
Pipe-thread compound.
Thread-cutting oil.

Cleaning equipment

Cleaning equipment, consisting of brooms, mops,
squeegees, scrub brushes, and cleaning cloths, should
be provided. Such items should be kept together in a
storeroom provided for that purpose.

Containers Generally Used

Size of cans

The number of can sizes used in a community can-
nery should be limited because the processing time
differs for the various sizes and because the time
involved in changing the sealer may delay the canning

Table 2.— Size

and description of cans common

\y used

Dimensions

Factory
symbols

Volume
of cans

Average

Size of can

Diam-
eter

Height

net
weight

No. 2

No. 2)4

No. 3

No. 10

Inches

37l6

4>i6
4Me
6Mc

Inches

4^6

4%
41Me

7

307 x 409
401 x 411
404 x 414
603 x 700

Cups

2y2

4
13

Ounces

20

28

38

110

operation. Sizes most commonly used for community
and school-lunch or institution canning are given in
figure 55 and in table 2.

Type of finish

Three types of finish in containers generally used
for canning are: Plain tin; C-enamel; and R-enamel,
also called Standard enamel. Enameled cans are not
necessary to insure a wholesome product but are used
to prevent discoloration which occurs with some
products when plain tin is used. C-enamel cans are
used to prevent discoloration of nonacid products
containing sulfur. R-enamel cans are used to prevent
the loss of color which occurs when highly colored
fruits and beets are placed in plain tin.

Table 3 gives the recommended types of container
most satisfactory for various products.

Table 3.

-Recommended type of container for
products

specified

Product

Apples

Apricots

Asparagus

Beans, green and wax.

Beans, green lima

Beets

Berries

Carrots

Cherries, sour

Cherries, sweet

Corn

Fruit juices

Grapefruit

Meats

Mixed vegetables

Okra

Peaches

Pears

Peas

Pineapple

Plums

Pumpkin or squash

Sauerkraut

Summer squash

Sweetpotatoes

Tomatoes

First choice

Plain.

.do_

do—

do--.

C-enamel_
R-enamel.
do__-

Plain

R-enamel_

Plain

C-enameL
R-enamel_

Plain

do—

„do_
.do_
.do.

.do_
.do.
.do_

R-enamel_

do___

do...

Plain.

.do.
.do_

Second
choice

Plain.

Plain.

Plain.

Purchase of cans

When a large production is expected and space is
available for storage it is desirable from a standpoint
of expense and convenience to purchase the season's
supply of cans at one time. A carlot of No. 2 cans
contains from 50,000 to 97,000 cans, and of No. 3 cans
from 36,000 to 50,000, depending on the length of the
car. Cans should be shipped in bags or cartons to
minimize damage in shipment and storage and to keep
cans clean until they are used.

Table 4 gives the approximate number of cans re-
quired for a measured quantity of some of the more
common fruits and vegetables.

38

Table 4. — Approximate number of cans required for meas-
ured quantities of produce

Product

Apples

Beans, lima (in shell)

Beans, green and wax

Beets (without tops)

Berries i

Carrots

Cherries

Corn (green, sweet)

Greens

Peaches

Peas (green, in shell)

Plums

Squash

Sweetpotatoes (fresh har

vest)

Tomatoes

Weight

per
bushel

Pounds
50
28
24
60
»40
50
56
35
12
50
30
60
40

52
56

No. 2

cans

required

Number
30
10
21
32
24
30
34
2 12
10
30
32
45
30

30
22

No. 3

cans

required

Number
20
8
16
24
18
20
25

7
20
24
30
20

20
15

No. 10

cans

required

Number
6
3
4
7
6
6
7

No. 2

No 2V2
Figure 55. — Relative can sizes.

1 24-quart crate.

2 Whole gram.

Small canning centers operated with
gas burners

In those sections of the country where gas is avail-
able at low cost, communities planning to set up small
centers may find it advantageous to use gas burners to
heat the various pieces of equipment needed to process
foods. In planning this type of unit it is well to con-
sider its disadvantages as well as its advantages.
Chief among these disadvantages is the lack of a cen-
tral source of heat to furnish adequate supplies of
steam and hot water. Furthermore, the heat gener-
ated by the numerous burners required for heating
individual vessels presents ventilation problems in
that the atmosphere in the room becomes most un-

45'

comfortable unless adequate means of ventilation are
provided. It is recognized that this type of plant is
less costly to install than a similar-sized plant set up
to operate with steam generated from a gas-fired
boiler.

Before deciding on the type of plant to be set up it
is recommended that local authorities governing the
installation of gas equipment be consulted because,
in many municipalities, there are regulations which
must be complied with. The advice of the local gas
company should also be sought before selecting gas
appliances since they generally can supply the names
of high grade manufacturers of national reputation
who are in a position to furnish equipment that is
properly designed and engineered. The local gas com-
pany can also furnish the necessary information which
the manufacturers would need in order to supply a
burner most suitable for the gas in the particular
locality and advise on safety precautions. The same
careful planning will need to be exercised in selecting
the site and building for the multiple burner units as
for steam-operated units. In addition, special con-
sideration must be given to ventilation, as stated

**-

rC. I DRAIN PIPE EXTENDED TO GREASE TRAP

,DRAIN TRENCH

\l

4'

z

0

H O

>o
z r
*z

\

T^?

OOOQ

RETORTS^

PRESS

8-6"

CPr

IV6"

u|re cookers>

18 NO. 3 CJANs CAPACITY EACH
-DRAIN TRENCH

-MEDIUM TANK

It' r 4>IP ^BLANCH /SCALD iOII

r"

01

FILLING TABLE

10"

4'

PREPARATION TABLE

10"

PREPARATION TABLE

PREPARATION TABLE

C.I.DRAIN PIPE EXTENDED TO GREASE TRAP

DRAIN TRENCH

-I E

4 I-

DftAIM TBEMCH

Figure 56. — Plan of community canning plant, using gas service, with daily capacity of 500 to 800 No. 3 cans.

39

above, in order to avoid overheating of the plant and
the accumulation of moisture and the products gen-
erated by the fuel. Figure 56 illustrates the place-
ment of the major items of equipment in a multiple-
burner plant with a daily capacity of 500 to 800 cans.
It is not considered feasible to operate a plant of
greater capacity without a boiler as a central source
of steam.

A list of the equipment required for a multiple gas
burner plant similar to the one illustrated is given in
table 5.

The blanch and scald tanks, the medium tank, and
the exhaust box should be of a size for efficient opera-
tion of the plant. The burners for these tanks and the
box as well as for the retorts and pressure canners
should be of a size and type to generate sufficient heat
to bring the vessel up to operating temperature within
the time required for efficient plant operation and to
assure products of good quality. This is well illus-
trated in the case of the blanch or scald tank. To
heat these vessels the burner must be of sufficient
capacity to assure quick recovery of boiling tempera-
tures required for scalding and blanching the produce.

Unless this is provided, much time will be lost in
waiting for the water to return to a boil and the
produce will be partially cooked in the process. In
the case of the medium tank a smaller burner may be
used as it is only necessary to keep the brine or sirup
at a boiling temperature. Any change made in the
details of the drawings in the illustrations may change
the burner requirements.

For those vessels heated with an open-flame gas
burner it is essential that a skirt be provided around
the base of the vessel to screen the flame from air drafts
and to prevent injury to workers. It is also necessary
when heating with gas burners to provide proper-sized
flues or outlets to the outer air to assure the full effi-
ciency of the burners and to carry away the products of
combustion. Such flues should be equipped with a
suitable draft diverter and should extend vertically
from the appliance and exhaust the products either
under a properly ventilated hood into a chimney or
in an approved manner through the roof. The size
of the flue varies with the size of the burner. The
area of the flue should be at least 1 square inch for
each 7,500 B. t. u. of burner capacity.

Table 5. — Canning equipment required for multiple gas burner plant of 500 to 800 No. S can capacity per 8-hour day

Item

Description

Number
required

Item

Description

Number
required

Gas burner _ _

85,000 B. t. u./hr. wheel-
type for heating 33 can
capacity retorts.

107,000 B. t. u./hr. wheel-
type for heating 20" x
18" galvanized blanch
and scald tank.

40,000 B. t. u./hr. ring-type
for heating 17" x 15"
medium tank.

30,000 B. t. u./hr. ring-type
for heating 14 to 18 qt.
pressure canners.

125,000 B. t. u./hr. immer-
sion-type for heating 3'
x 4' batch-type exhaust
box.

33 No. 3 can capacity

14 to 18 No. 3 can capacity. _

Wash boiler heated over
pressure-canner burners
(blanch or scald tanks or
retorts may also be used) .

Heavy galvanized metal, 5
to 10 gallon size for pre-
cooking of products such
as corn, applesauce, etc.

Bench-type, motor-driven,
5 or 6 cans per minute.

Bench-type, heavy-duty,
hand-operated, 3 or 4
cans per minute.

3' x 4' x 15" batch-type
(covered).

2
2

1

4 or 5

1

2

4 or 5

0)

2 to 4

1
1

1

Wash sink
Wash sink

Scald and blanch

tank.
Cold-dip tank
Medium tank.

Cooling tank

Preparation table

Fill table

2' x 2' x 18" (for washing
utensils).

4' x 2' x 18" double-com-
partment (for washing
produce).

18" diameter x 20" deep

18" diameter x 20" deep

15" diameter x 17" deep
for brine, sirup, etc. (ap-
proximately 10-gallon ca-
pacity) .

4' x 3' x 2' (mounted at
working height).

10' x 4' x 34" __ . . _

1

Gas burner _

2

Gas burner. _

2
2

Gas burner

1

Gas burner

1

3

10' x 4' x 34" ... . . .

1

Retort with inset

crate.
Pressure canner with

inset rack.
Open-process tank

Sealer table
Sealer table

Blanching basket

Can tray

30" x 4' x 32" (for hand-
operated sealer).

30" x 4' x 34" (for bench-
type motor-driven seal-
er).

Wire mesh _

1

1

6

18 No. 3 can capacitv

Hardwood 18" x 12"

12 to 16 quart

24

Cutting board
Dishpan

(3)

Thermometer
Gage tester

Canning

2

For testing pressure gages

For lifting cans from ex-
haust box.
For handling cans at sealer. _

10" for filing can seams

Small, for inspecting can

seams.
Standard, for measuring
body and cover hook of
can seam.
20-gallon capacity with
cover.

1

Can lifter.

2

Sealer

Gloves _ .

(4)

Mill file ..____

6

Sealer

Magnifying lens

Metal ruler

1

1 or 2

Exhaust box .

Garbage can

2 or 3

1 One or more.

* Six pair.

2 Optional. ^Eighteen or more.

Note.— Other equipment needed will include fire extinguisher, marking equipment for cans, repair parts for equipment, tools for making repairs, and special
equipment, such as sieves, meat grinder, small pea sheller, and small bean cutter. Paring knives, tomato-peeling knives, vegetable knives, and butcher knives
should be provided by the cannery to standardize the types and sizes desirable. For suppliers of equipment for gas-burner units, see Partial List of Manu-
facturers, page 83.

40

Flue requirements in particular should be reviewed
with the authorities governing installation of equip-
ment, as this is one point on which almost e very-
municipality has regulations. All flues should be in-
sulated to a height of 6 feet to protect the workers
from coming in contact with the hot pipes. All floor,
table, and wall surfaces exposed to the heat of the gas
burners should be well insulated with noncombustible
material to prevent fires. When gas burners are in-
stalled a space of 3 to 6 inches should be left between
the vessel and the burner to assure efficient heating.
This will vary according to the characteristics of the
gas. A competent gasman should be able to determine
the proper height.

Installation drawings are shown of only those ves-
sels which are heated with gas burners. Other items
of equipment required, such as preparation tables, fill
tables, cooling tank, and wash sinks, may be con-
structed in accordance with specifications given for
those items on pages 24 to 35 and in table 5- For
information on the type of sealers to buy, see page 26.

The instructions, given in the preceding section of
this publication, on operating the various items of
equipment used in steam-operated plants apply also
to the items of equipment used in small canning cen-
ters operated with gas burners, with the exception of
retorts and pressure canners. Instructions for their
operation follow the sections on their installation.

The blanch and scald tanks are constructed of
18-gage galvanized sheet metal made in a cylindrical
shape. To strengthen these tanks the top has a rolled
wire-band edge smoothly finished to prevent any in-
jury from contact when they are in use. These tanks
ate supported on a separate base stand approximately
14 inches high so that the tank will be at a convenient
working height. The base is made of angle-iron legs
attached to a heavy-gage metal-band and seat arrange-
ment. The tanks are removable from the base stand
for cleaning. Cleaning and draining may be facili-

tated by fitting the tanks with adequate drain con»
nections. The side skirt is made of light-gage metal
extending down the angle-iron legs for a distance of
6 inches or more to bring it approximately 1 inch
below the burner. The flue, also constructed of a
light-gage metal, is insulated and extends vertically
to a suitable outlet. The atmospheric wheel-type
burner of approximately 107,000 B. t. u./hr. capacity
with a Venturi mixing tube is recommended for
heating these tanks. (See fig. 57.)

The medium tank used for heating water, brine, or
sirup is placed on top of the fill table adjacent to the
exhaust box at a height sufficient to clear the tallest
can when filling the boiling liquid into the cans.
The tank is constructed of heavy noncorrosive metal
with a shallow funnel-type bottom to facilitate drain-
ing and cleaning. It is supported by a separate base
constructed of three angle-iron legs attached to a
heavy-gage metal band-and-seat arrangement. The
supply pipe fits into a threaded flange at the center
bottom of the tank and extends through the center
of the burner with a T arrangement below the burner.
The pipes extending from the T are fitted with faucets
which permit the filling of the medium into the cans
from both sides of the fill table. A light-gage metal
skirt of sufficient depth to come at least 1 inch below
the burner is provided at the base of the tank. The
flue, also of a light-gage metal, is attached to the skirt
and extends vertically to a suitable outlet. An atmos-
pheric ring-type burner of approximately 40,000 B. t.
u./hr. capacity with a Venturi mixing tube is recom-
mended for heating the tank. (See fig. 58.)

The exhaust box constructed of 18-gage galvanized
sheet metal should be insulated on the sides and bot-
tom and should be fitted with a tight cover of proper
design. Such insulation and cover will largely
eliminate both radiation- and evaporation-heat losses
and will protect the worker from possible burns. The
box should be fitted with a false bottom of heavy wire

P"1

-GAS
VENT

Figure 57. — Blanch, or scald, tank with
wheel-type burner.

CAPACITY 107,000 B.T.U/H R

IS DIAM.

BLANCH,0R SCALD,
TANK

10

Hi J ^GAS BURNER tjj

'// / ! — \ W1

EE

PLAN OF GA5 BURNER

- — 1" DRAIN

SHEET-METAL SKIRT

14"

— SUPPORTS

-3 ANGLE-IRON LEGS

-^ ^ *—

^BURNER-SUPPORT STAND

389641° — 46-

41

V-WATE1R.

^

-NONC0RRO5IVE. METAL

Figure 58. — Medium tank with ring-type
burner.

I5"0IAM.

MUDIUM TANK

it"

CAPACITY
40,000 BXU/HR.

^^

PLAN OF GAS BURNER AND MEDIUM PIPES

5heelt-mltal skirt

legs and burner supports
•can-filler valves
-5 angle: iron legs

=r~
FILL-PIPE SUPPORTS

TOP OF FILL TABLE, NO N C0MBU5 TIBLE MATERIAL

mesh and an overflow drain of the proper height and
size to prevent water from getting into the produce
being exhausted. The immersion-type burner has
been found to be quite satisfactory for heating the
batch-type exhaust box. It should be fitted with a
Venturi tube and have a capacity of approximately
125,000 B.t.u./hr. This type of burner is enclosed in
such a manner that the flame does not come in contact
with anything except the interior of the coil unit
which is immersed below the water level in the box.
The immersion coil which extends around the sides of
the box is equipped with the proper-sized flue and
draft hood which extends vertically to a suitable
outlet. The draft hood fitted near the top of the draft
flue prevents down drafts and flash backs in the opera-
tion of the immersion-type burner. (See fig. 59.)

Retorts of larger than 33 No. 3 can capacity should
not be heated by gas burners. Specifications for retort
equipment are given on page 13. A retort heated by a
gas burner is supported on three heavy angle-iron legs
at a height of approximately 14 inches from the floor.
This places the retort at a convenient working height
for loading and unloading by hand. The angle-iron
legs which are set in a slightly slanting vertical posi-
tion may be notched out at the top or angle-iron clips
may be welded to the legs for the retort to rest on.
Each leg is fitted with a }2-inch set screw to tighten
against the retort body and hold it securely. Flat
metal bars or round rods are welded to the legs below
the burner in a triangular design to keep them in
position. The skirt of light-gage metal fits around
the base of the retort and extends down the legs to
approximately 1 inch below the burner. It is fitted
with a flue of the proper dimension which extends
vertically to an adequate outlet. The burner, placed
in central position under the retort, is supported by a
pedestal which rests on the floor. An atmospheric
wheel-type burner of approximately 85,000 B.t.u./hr.
capacity is recommended for heating a 33 No. 3 can
capacity retort. It should be fitted with a Venturi
mixing tube. (See fig. 60.)

Operation of gas-heated retorts

Retorts heated with gas burners are operated in the
same manner as those supplied with steam from a
boiler, with the following exceptions:

1. Water provided in the retort is the source of steam. The water
should be brought to the boiling point before the cans are placed in
the retort. For a 33 No. 3 can capacity retort, 2J.9 gallons of water
is used. This provides sufficient water to permit partial venting
throughout a 30-minute processing period. If the processing period
is longer, as in the case of meat, the amount of water should be
increased. It is very important when operating retorts heated with
a direct flame not to permit them to become dry.

2. A longer venting time is necessary in retorts which generate
their own steam than in retorts connected to a pressure steam line.
These self-heating retorts of 33 No. 3 can capacity should be vented
for at least 25 minutes at 0 pound pressure (7).

The burner stand for a battery of pressure canners
is made of heavy angle-iron and flat-metal rods of
welded construction. It is recommended that the
stand be made 18 inches high in order to facilitate the
removal of the racks from the pressure canners with
a minimum of effort. A ring-type burner of approxi-
mately 30,000 B. t. u./hr. capacity fitted with a Ven-
turi mixing tube is adequate for heating a pressure
canner of 14 to 18 No. 3 can capacity, the smallest
sizes recommended for use in this type of plant. The
burners are supported on metal rods at a sufficient
distance from the pressure canners to assure proper
combustion. A light-metal hood fitted with the
proper-sized flue which extends vertically at the cen-
ter back of the hood to an adequate outlet is provided
along the back of the burner stand to carry off the
products of combustion. (See fig. 61.)

Operation of pressure canners

Pressure canners used for the processing of nonacid
foods in tin containers are operated in the same manner
as retorts heated with gas burners except that the
pet-cock or vent valve is usually closed at the end of
the venting period. This is done to conserve the water
needed to generate steam in the canner. Approximately

42

Fl3ure 59. — Exhaust box with immersion-
type burner.

WATER PIPE

STATIONARY

SWING COVERS

GAS-BURNER

CAPACITY

l£5,O00BTU/HR.

NSULATION
FALSE. BOTTOM

NO. 18-GAGE GALV.
SHEET-STEELTANK

BOX SUPPORTS

SECTIONAL ELEVATION

VENT
SAFETY VALVE

PET COCK

GATE VALVE
GAGE

CAPACITY 65,000 BT.U./HRj;
H 40=? ^THERMOMETER

ET COCK

PLAN OF GAS BURNER
"DRAIN

t! /«3AS BURNER ^

I i •* n\ "\\\

I I ,__ ■ .\ \\^sheeT-METAL SKIRT

/// / ?ij ' yr

| / im<^ Qp- SUPPORTS

Figure 60. — Retort with wheel-type
burner and stand.

\

3 ANGLE-IRON LEGS

BURNER-SUPPORT STAND

43

.RATE

PART PLAN

ANGLE-IRON FRAME.
s- GRATE ■

GAS VE.NT-

Figure 61. — Burner stand for battery of
pressure canners.

fcr

(©) zga5 burner^ (©^burner
30,000 b.t.u./hr..each » support

-|"gas

c

=7^

(©) ^VENT DUCT

"X

G AS SUPPLY

PART FRONT F_LF_VATI0N

4 inches of water should be put in the canner and
brought to a boil before the cans are placed in the can-
ner. To permit the full circulation of steam through-
out the canner, cans should be stacked in the canner
rack in the manner recommended for stacking cans
in retort baskets. To remove all air from the canner
it must be vented for at least 10 minutes ((5), counting
the venting time when steam escapes freely from the
open vent or pet cock with an audible sound. This
venting time applies to canners of the size recom-
mended in this publication for use in community
canneries.

To vent the pressure canner, open wide the pet-cock
bleeder. At the end of the venting period close the
pet-cock bleeder or vent and allow the pressure to
come up as quickly as possible to the pressure desired
for processing. As soon as this pressure has been
reached, record the time and adjust the flame so that
the pressure will be maintained at the point desired
as uniformly as possible. It is well to have the patron
whose food is being processed watch the pressure
canner to avoid fluctuations in pressure. At the end
of the processing period turn off the flame and open
the pet cock gradually to release the pressure. When
the pressure has returned to 0 open the canner prompt-
ly. Tilt the lid so that the steam emerges away from
the operator. Remove the cans for cooling.

Care of pressure canners

Wash the pressure canners every day and more often
if needed. Keep the surfaces that form the closure
between the pot and the cover clean. This will
reduce the tendency of the cover to stick. Take care
not to dent or roughen these surfaces. Do not use an
abrasive on them. New pressure canners sometimes
leak steam slightly at this juncture but after being
heated several times, the surfaces should adjust to
each other to make the closure tight.

As pressure gages are usually the only instrument
provided on pressure canners for determining the
temperature inside the canner it is particularly im-
portant that the gages be accurate. (See p. 20,
Testing Pressure Gages.) It is also important that
the safety valve be dismantled and cleaned periodically
as gumlike substances sometimes form in the valve
and interfere with its normal operation. When a
pressure canner is not in use for any period of time the
mechanism inside the safety valve should be cleaned
and then oiled lightly with a light tasteless mineral
oil. Do not submerge pressure-canner covers in water
when cleaning them. If that is done, the water may
enter the pressure gage and corrode and finally destroy
the gage mechanism. Keep the canner lid upright
and in position on the canner when not in use.

44

Care of idle equipment

During the periods equipment is not in use it
should be given special care to prevent rusting and
corroding. The boiler should be thoroughly flushed
out and refilled and % gallon of lubricating oil added
to the top of the water. When the boiler is then
drained the oil will coat the inside surfaces and keep
them from rusting.

Remove gages, pet cocks, and thermometers from
retorts and steam pipes, wrap them in heavy paper,
and label them carefully to indicate the part and loca-
tion. Clean thoroughly such equipment as retorts,
exhaust boxes, pressure canners, and mechanical
equipment; dry and treat all surfaces that are likely to
rust with a heavy grease such as that used on an
automobile chassis. Parts of equipment that need
to be removed should be wrapped and placed with the
equipment. Carefully inspect equipment for wear
and make note of needed repairs. Steam-jacketed
kettles and blanching baskets made of noncorrosive
material may be covered with heavy paper for protec-
tion from dust when they have been thoroughly
cleaned. Check sealers for repair and replacement,
oil where needed, and grease the external parts to
prevent rusting. It is well to store sealers in their
original shipping boxes, keeping all attachments
together in a small sack, labeled, and stored in the
box with the sealer. Small equipment, such as
peeling knives and sharpening tools, also need to be
thoroughly cleaned, wrapped in paper, and labeled
before storing. Check belting and hose for wear and
replacement and store in a cool dry place. Make an
inventory of all equipment at the close of the season as
well as at stated intervals during the operation period.

Sanitation

In those States that have regulations governing
food-processing plants such regulations should be
obtained and posted at the canning center. A high
degree of sanitation is necessary if good results in
canning are to be realized. Items of equipment, such
as scald and blanch tanks, medium tanks, exhaust
boxes, and sealers, will need to be thoroughly cleaned
at the end of the working day. All equipment and
utensils which come in contact with food should be
treated with a germicidal compound after each day's
use. Cutting boards and table tops need special
treatment to keep bacteria under control. Scrape
them, scrub with hot, soapy water, and rinse with
boiling water or apply steam. Then disinfect them,
using a hypochlorite solution or a chloride of lime
bleaching fluid diluted according to directions on the
can. Let the solution stay on for about half an hour,
then wash off with scalding water and treat with
steam. Linoleum-surfaced table tops are not satis-
factory for preparing meat as they cannot be scalded
or disinfected without injury to the surface. Such
items as peelers, pulpers, grinders, and the exhaust
box are left dismantled for airing and thorough cooling

and should be flushed with cold water before they are
used again. Other important points in maintaining
plant sanitation are as follows :

1. Make provisions for the regular disposal of garbage. Wash
and, if possible, steam all garbage cans every day. Leave them open
until time for use again.

2. Scrub and dry floors at least once a day. Flushing floors during
shut-down periods or at meal time is frequently necessary. A
squeegee or broom is used for removing excess water from the floor.

3. Keep walls, woodwork, and windows clean. Keep screens free
from dust. Do not use window curtains as they catch and scatter
dust in the cannery.

4. Clean toilets and lavatories and treat daily with a disinfecting
solution.

5. Provide sanitary drinking fountains or individual paper cups
for employees and patrons.

6. Sprinkle the area around the cannery with oil or cover with
calcium chloride to keep dust down.

7. It is desirable that employees wear clean uniforms each day.
Uniforms or towels should not be laundered in the cannery.

Safety

The importance of making the community cannery
a safe place to work cannot be overemphasized. The
supervisor should inform herself of all safety regula-
tions applicable in the area in which the cannery is
located. In addition to the safety precautions
mentioned in connection with the installation and
operation of equipment the following are also im-
portant:

1. See that stairways and entries are well lighted.

2. Equip platforms and stairs on which patrons walk or work with
handrails that are securely fastened at a height for convenient use.

3. Provide the ladders used in the plant with pads or points to
prevent their slipping.

4. Keep floors clean and free of excess water and accumulated
refuse.

5. See that stools, tables, and other wooden equipment are of solid
construction and free from rough edges or splinters.

6. Do not repair machinery while it is in operation.

7. Protect exposed gears, belts, sprockets, chains, and shaftings,
with secure guards to avoid the entangling of any clothing or object.

8. Protect and ground electrical equipment in accordance with
existing codes. When pull-chain sockets are used they should be
insulated.

9. Do not attempt to repair boiler lines or steam fittings while the
steam system is under pressure, as this may result in serious injury
to persons or cause property damage.

10. Place fire extinguishers at convenient locations in the plant
and check them regularly to see that they are properly charged.

11. Where gasoline stoves are used, place them in large, shallow
boxes of sand. Keep additional sand in buckets or provide a foam-
type extinguisher to be used if fire should result from use of such
stoves. Make no attempt to fill gasoline stoves while there are other
stoves in operation or flames burning nearby. Such stoves should
not be refueled inside the building.

12. Check retort crates, bails, and hoisting equipment at frequent
intervals for defects.

13. Teach patrons the proper method of handling tools.

14. Advise patrons and employees to wear low-heeled, comfortable
shoes to avoid slipping on floors.

15. Keep first-aid cabinets well stocked at all times. Give train-
ing in first aid to employees.

16. Provide salt tablets during hot weather to prevent heat
exhaustion.

17. Provide aprons, boots, and gloves of rubber or acid-resistant
material to protect the worker where caustic alkali is used.

45

Management

Personnel — employed and volunteer

In getting ready for plant operation the supervisor
and cannery committee must decide on the number of
employees needed to operate the plant and how they
will be selected. In a community cannery, patrons
usually prepare their own produce, fill it into the cans,
and mark the cans. Patrons also assume responsibility
for cleaning the equipment and the space they have
used in preparing their products, and for disposing of
any refuse from their products. In small canneries it
may be necessary for patrons to assume other jobs,
but in most instances it is best to employ regular per-
sonnel for such jobs as operating the retorts and sealer.
In all instances an experienced boiler operator should
be employed. In some States boiler operators must
be licensed. The boiler operator should give full
attention to boiler operation and the maintenance of
the steam lines in a plant. He should not be required
to do other tasks that will take him away from the
boiler for any length of time.

During processing periods, if a person is not hired
to spend full time with the retorts, a responsible
patron should be assigned to this job. Other jobs
that may be performed near the retorts include loading
of filled cans into the retort crates, and cooling and
unloading of the processed cans. In units where pres-
sure canners are used each patron should be made re-
sponsible for his own canner. Gages should have
faces sufficiently large so that the floor supervisor can
note at a glance the pressure indicated and, if the
pressure is not correct, call the fact to the attention
of the patron responsible.

The sealer operator, if one is employed, and the
supervisor should be trained to test can seams and to
make the necessary sealer adjustments. They, as well
as all other employees, should be responsible for the
daily upkeep and care of the equipment which they
operate.

In large plants it is usually advisable to employ an
assistant to the supervisor to help in receiving prod-
uce, training patrons, and general supervision of the
work of the plant. Such a person will need to be as
capable and as well trained as the supervisor in operat-
ing the cannery and in teaching or directing others.

Other employees might include: A clerk, to be
responsible for making appointments, maintaining
records, receiving money from patrons, and releasing
canned goods; a janitor for general cleaning and refuse
removal; an additional key employee who can be trained
to replace anyone in the plant. Such an employee
could relieve the retort operator and sealer operator
during rest and lunch periods, or replace either one in
an emergency, so that plant operations will not need
to be curtailed in their absence. Other jobs that might
be assumed by this person would include brine and
sirup making and the issuing of cans to patrons.

Some communities have found it advantageous to
use volunteer workers in their canning centers. Such
workers usually assume the responsibility of instruct-

ing patrons in the preparation of their produce.
Volunteer workers should not operate boilers, sealers, retorts,
or other pressure equip7nent unless they are fully qualified to
do so. When such workers are so used it is important
to select those who can be depended on for a definite
period of time.

Protection for employees and patrons

It is always wise in a community venture, such as a
canning center, to insure employees and patrons
against accidents that may occur.

Many canneries carry Workmen's Compensation
Insurance which pays wages to employees in case of
disability. Some canneries also carry a public liabil-
ity policy and a boiler insurance policy for protection
of patrons as well as employees in case of personal
injury due to an accident at the cannery. The
latter policy usually covers damage to property as well
as personal injury.

If a cannery is operated under the supervision of a
school which carries a public liability policy, the
cannery usually can be included in this policy at a
lower premium rate than would be charged for an
independent policy.

Getting information to the public

Newspapers, local merchants, women's clubs,
garden clubs, schools and radio stations can give
valuable help in publicizing the community can-
nery and its program if the information is made
available to them by the cannery committee and the
supervisor. To be effective, this information should
follow a general pattern commencing with the organ-
ization of the cannery. Throughout the canning
season some member of the committee should be
responsible for compiling and releasing pertinent
information at stated intervals.

Newspapers and radio stations especially should be
furnished with: Copies of agreements between the
cannery and patrons; advance information on when
the cannery will open; when and where people may
make appointments for using the cannery's facilities;
and what produce may be canned. They also should
be given the names of the cannery committee members
and their work.

Gas and electric-light companies may be willing to
cooperate with the program to the extent of mailing
informational circulars with their monthly bills.

If certain days are to be set aside for canning a
particular product the notice should appear in the
newspapers in advance. This allows patrons time to
make their appointments with the cannery. Local
stores that carry produce for canning may want to
include notices of canning dates in their regular
advertisements.

Items of public interest, such as outstanding ac-
complishments of the cannery, should be reported
both to radio stations and to newspapers as they
occur. Newspapers may also be interested in well-
illustrated articles on the cannery program for use in
their Sunday issues.

46

Education and training for patrons

If the community cannery is to operate successfully
and become a permanent facility in the community,
all groups of people using the cannery must become
increasingly skilled in its use and operation and be
willing to support it.

In order that the cannery may operate effectively'
an educational program should be conducted on: (1)
Planning, (2) producing, and (3) conserving the fam-
ily food supply. The program should begin before
the planting season of the products which are to be
conserved.

Individuals enrolled in any part of this educational
program should be organized into groups of teachable
size, based on : (l) Size of the cannery, (2) equipment
available, (3) products to be processed, (4) previous
experience in using canning equipment, (5) area from
which patrons come, (6) time best suited to them,
and (7) number to be trained. A seasonal sequence
of instruction should be followed in all phases of this
training. The training program will be most effective
when taught just prior to or in connection with activi-
ties carried on by the groups or individuals in proc-
essing their own products.

In order to carry out this educational program, it
will be necessary to use the existing educational agen-
cies or other services available in the community.
One of the responsibilities of the local advisory com-
mittee will be to designate qualified persons to serve

as instructors for the training program, especially as
it pertains to planning, producing, and conserving
food. An educational program of this kind has been
handled successfully in local communities by teachers
of vocational agriculture and home economics, county
Extension Service agents, county Farm Security Ad-
ministration supervisors, garden-club leaders, and
other trained or qualified individuals and groups.
Experience has shown that greater quantities of more
desirable food will be conserved by each family if the
homemaker is given systematic instruction and train-
ing on planning the food needs, food production, and
food-processing practices. The educational program
will provide the supervisor with definite information
regarding the number of patrons planning to use the
cannery and the amount of produce that will be
processed in the cannery during the season.

Planning food for the family

To get the greatest benefit from the community
cannery, a family should be given training in develop-
ing a food budget. This is done by listing the kinds
and quantities of food that will be needed by the fam-
ily during the year. The food budget includes all
foods that are produced in family gardens as well as
those purchased from local markets or producers.
The quantities of fruits and vegetables in the food
budget should include those to be eaten fresh as well
as those to be conserved for later use, by storing fresh
or by canning, freezing, brining, and dehydrating.

Table 6. — Family food plan at moderate cost

Family members

Children under 12 years:

9-1 2 months

1—3 years

4-6 years

7-9 years

10-12 years

Girls:

13-15 years

16-20 years

Women:

Moderately active. _

Very active

Sedentary

Pregnant

Nursing

Boys:

13-15 years

16-20 years

Men:

Moderately active. _

Very active

Sedentary

Kinds and quantities of food for a week

Milk '

Qt.

7
5
5
5
6

4J4

51/2

4y2

7

10K2

6
6

5
6
5

Potatoes,
sweet-
potatoes

Lb. Oz.

0 8

1 0

1 8

2 8

3 0

3 8

3 0

4 0

5 0

4 0

7 0

3 0

Dry beans

and peas,

nuts

Lb. Oz.

0 2
0 2
0 2

0 4
0 4

0 6
0 12
0 4
0 6
0 6

0 8
0 12

0 12

1 0
0 6

Citrus

fruit,

tomatoes

Lb. Oz.

2 0

1 12

1 8

1 8

1 8

1 12

1 12

1 12
1 12

1 8
1 8
1 8

Green,

yellow

vegetables

Lb. Oz.

1 8

1 8

1 8

1 8

1 8

1 8

1 8

2 0

2 0

1 8

1 8

1 8

Other
vegetables
and fruit

Lb. Oz.

0 8

1 0

1 8

2 8
2 8

2 8

2 8

2 8

2 8

2 8

2 8

3 8

3 0

3 0

2 8

2 8

2 8

Eggs

No.

Meat,

poultry,

fish

Lb. Oz.

0 2

0 8

1 0

1 8

2 0

2 0

2 0

2 0

2 0

2 0

2 0

2 0

Flour.2
cereals

Lb Oz.

0 8

1 8

2 0

2 8

3 4

4 0
3 8

3 8

4 12
2 8

4 12
9 0
3 8

Fats and
oils

Lb. Oz.

0 1

0 4

0 6

0 10

0 12

0 14

0 12

0 12

1 0
0 12
0 12
0 12

1 0
1 10
0 12

Sugar,

sirups,

preserves

Lh.

Oz.
1

2

(l
0

0 8
0 8
0 10

0 10
0 10

0 12
0 12
0 12
0 10
0 10

0 12
0 12

0 12
0 12
0 12

1 Or its equivalent in cheese, evaporated milk, or dry milk.

2 Count 1]4 pounds of bread as 1 pound of flour.

Bureau of Human Nutrition and Home Economics, XJ. S. Department of Agriculture (10).

47

Nutritional requirements of trie family

To meet the nutritional requirements of the family,
the food budget should be based on the Basic 7 food
groups as outlined by the Bureau of Human Nutrition
and Home Economics (10~). The family food plan at
moderate cost shown in that publication and repro-
duced herein as table 6, can serve as a basis for deter-
mining the quantities of food needed to meet the
nutritional requirements of the average family on a
weekly, monthly, and yearly basis.

Quantity of each food to be canned

The quantity of food to be preserved by canning
would depend on other methods of preservation

available and on the length of the season when canned
foods, rather than fresh products, are to be used.
Food-preservation budgets, such as the one shown in
table 7, are available in most States and may be used
as a pattern in determining the amounts and varieties
of food to be preserved by any one family. Although
this budget was set up for rural families it may be
adapted to the use of urban families. When setting
up an individual family budget it is important to
keep in mind the variation of produce even within a
State and to have the budget include foods that are
available on the local markets as well as those that
are home-produced. Families should be taught
how to plan individual food budgets that are adapted
to their own needs.

Table 7. — Family food-preservation budget

Product

Amount to can '

Product

Amount to store, dry,
brine, and cure

For 1 person

For my
family

For 1 person

For my
family

Tomatoes and tomato juice

30 qt

20 qt

Potatoes

3bu

Green and yellow vegetables

2-3 bu. (Irish)

5—7 qt. greens:

1 bu. sweetpotatoes

Wild greens

Cabbage and Chinese cabbage (about

10 heads).
Yellow vegetables

1 bu

Spinach

1 bu

Mustard

Chard

}i bu. carrots

Turnip greens, etc _

}i bu. Hubbard squash

10-15 qt. other green vegetables:

Sweetpotatoes (as above)

Young green beans

Other vegetables and fruit

4bu.

Peas

1-3 bu. vegetables:
Turnips

Asparagus, green

1—2 qt. vellow vegetables:

Beets

Carrots

Onions

Sweetpotatoes

Parsnips

Other vegetables and fruit

50 qt

Salsifv

10-20 qt. of vegetables:

Rutabagas

Vegetable soup mixture

Squash and pumpkin

1-3 bu. fruits:
Apples

Babv beets

Corn

Pears

Sauerkraut,

Dried vegetables and fruits
2-3 gal. vegetables:

Corn, beans, peas, soybeans

4 gal

30-40 qt. fruits:
Apples

Peaches

1-2 gal. fruits:

Apples, peaches, pears

Pears

Rhubarb

Meat :

Cured pork

20 1b

Plums _

Grapes

Cured bacon

101b

Cherries

Lard

1 gal

Berries

Sorghum and honev

Sauerkraut (cabbage and turnip)

Nuts (in shell) : Peanuts, hickory, wal-
nuts, hazel, pecans

Whole wheat for cereal and other
dishes

Popcorn, on cob

2 gaL _

Apricots

1 gal

Apple, peach, pear, rhubarb,
plum, grape, cherry, and berry
juices

1 bu

1 gal

8-12 pts. pickles, relishes, catsup, etc_
8-12 pt. jams, jellies, preserves, etc._
Meat

5 qt

5 qt -

2 a;al

20 qt _

8-12 pt. pork.

8-22 pt. beef .

8—12 pt. chicken and other meats

1 If a freezer locker is used, reduce the number of quarts canned according to the amount placed in the locker.
From Missouri Agricultural Extension Service (5, p. 8).

48

Food-production possibilities

In making out the family food budget the foods that
can be produced at home will need to be considered.
One large planting for canning will save time and
transportation for patrons. Plantings for canning
purposes should be made at the season most favorable
for producing those fruits and vegetables adapted to
any given area. This will not be as difficult for those
people living on farms as for the urban dweller who
will have to decide which products to plant in order
to get the most value from the available garden space.

After the food budget for the family has been
decided on, systematic instruction and study should
be undertaken with respect to: (1) Determining size
of garden; (2) selecting site for garden; (3) determining
amount of seed needed; (4) selecting and obtaining
kinds and amounts of fertilizers; and (5) other activi-
ties which are needed in connection with planning for
the family food supply.

Producins food for family use

Where families have their own gardens several group
meetings should be held just before and during the
growing season to study the methods used by success-
ful growers in the community and the recommenda-
tions of State experiment stations. These studies
include: (1) Preparing the seedbed; (2) selecting
varieties best adapted to the local area and for canning;
(3) succession planting of crops to avoid overcrowding
of the cannery; (4) starting plants in hotbeds or cold
frames; (5) pruning; (6) spraying; (7) cultivating;
and (8) harvesting.

Prior to the time when the fruits or vegetables are
ready to be harvested or purchased for canning, a
few group meetings should be held to discuss such
problems as: (l) The stage of maturity of the produce
that will insure a high-quality finished product;
(2) the proper type of containers for harvesting and
transporting produce to the cannery; (3) the quantity
of produce to be harvested for processing during any
one day; (4) time of day best suited for harvesting;
{5) holding certain produce for processing by using
temporary storage; and (6) preparatory steps to be
taken before the produce is brought to the cannery.

This systematic instruction on providing the family
food should be supplemented by posters, postal-card
folders, news articles, circular letters, or other devices
that will inform the patrons of planning, producing,
and processing activities.

Instructing families in canning practices

Specific instructions should be given the patrons on
preparation practices and canning techniques to be
followed in the various steps of the canning operation.
The individuals responsible tor the training program
may be able to obtain the services of experienced
patrons or volunteer workers to assist in the training
of inexperienced patrons in the preparation of produce
and the techniques of canning food. Instruction also
must be given on the operation and use of equipment.

The use of trained employees to operate, maintain,
and adjust the intricate pieces of canning equipment,
such as boilers and retorts, will: (1) Increase the
amount of food processed; (2) aid in more efficient
operation of the plant; and (3) insure a high-quality
canned product. The supervisor of the community
canning plant will need to train employees or other
persons to operate the equipment.

If the person responsible for the training program
has had teaching experience that includes job analysis,
little difficulty should be experienced in training the
employees and patrons in canning procedures and
operations.

In order that the instructor may make a job analysis
it will be necessary to decide first, what specific job is
to be taught. No attempt should be made to teach all
the activities that take place in the operation of a
cannery at one time. Instead, it is considered desir-
able to teach a person only one operation at a time.

The instructor should list all the important steps in
the order in which they must be done. Each step
listed should be accurate, brief, and clear. This is
important because, quite often, the instructor may
know how to do the job so well that he does some
step automatically and may not teach that step to
the learner.

The instructor should list the key points in each
step. A key point is anything in a step that might
make or ruin the job, injure the worker, or make the
work easier to do. The key points to be listed are
the techniques -which are to be emphasized at each
step of the operation if a thorough job of instruction
is to be accomplished.

Before using the teaching plan with individuals or
groups, the instructor shoulcf do the job according to
the plan developed and check to see that all steps and
key points have been included.

A break-down of all jobs connected with the prepa-
ration and processing of the produce and the operation
of each piece of equipment should be outlined and
training given the individuals who are to do these jobs.

The direct or lecture method of teaching gives indi-
viduals information about a canning technique but
does not train the individual to acquire skill in per-
forming the task. Similarly, a demonstration without
explanation will show the individual how to perform
a task but does not give information about the job or
practical experience in performing it skillfully. The
teacher who uses a combination of both methods of
instruction plus the technique of having the patron
"learn through doing" will carry on the most effec-
tive training program. In using this procedure the
instructor should outline the important steps in doing
each job and the essential points to observe in per-
forming each step. The correct equipment and all
necessary materials and supplies should be available
and correctly arranged for doing the particular job to
be taught. The following procedure has been found
effective in training inexperienced persons to do
canning:

Step 1. — The instructor should state clearly the
specific job to be done and stress the importance of

49

performing each operation correctly. Persons having
previous canning experience may demonstrate their
skill and if proficient, proceed with the work.

Step 2. — The instructor should explain and demon-
strate the job in clearly defined steps, stressing the
points which will result in success or failure. Charts,
pictures, films, and other illustrations may be used
to emphasize these points. It may be necessary to
explain and demonstrate some steps several times in
order to teach clearly the skills to individuals.

Step 3. — Each trainee should do the job under close
supervision, the instructor attempting to prevent
errors. It is a good practice to have the trainee
point out the essential steps he has performed in
doing the job. Questions may be raised as to what,
how, and why he has carried out each operation.
Have each trainee repeat the job under supervision
until he understands and can perform each operation.

Step 4. — The training will be more effective if the
person does the job immediately in connection with
processing his own produce or operating the piece
of equipment to which he has been assigned. If
certain points are not clear, questions should be en-
couraged to clear up these points. At first the in-
structor should check frequently the work being
done. Less supervision will be required as the per-
son acquires skill. The instructor should designate
some person to assist in giving information to patrons
on canning operations or in operating canning
equipment.

The use of wall charts (fig. 62), approximately
3 by 4 feet in size, on which are listed the several
steps that need to be followed in processing each of the
more common commodities is a good teaching device
and will aid the patron to follow the recommended
processing practices of the instructor.

CANNING TOMATOES

1.

Sorting:
For size.
Ripeness.
Soundness.

2.

Washing.

3.

4.
5.

Scalding.
Cold dipping.
Peeling.

6.

Washing cans.

7.

Seasoning:

No. 3 cans, 1 teaspoon salt.
No. 2 cans, }i teaspoon salt.

8.

Pack tomatoes to }i inch of the top of can.

9.
10.

Exhausting to 140° F., center
Sealing cans.

can temperature.

11.

Marking cans.

12.

Processing:

No. 2 cans, 45 minutes.
No. 3 cans, 55 minutes.

13.

Cooling to 100° F.

14.

Cleaning utensils.

15.

Checking out.

Figure 62. — A sample chart on canning tomatoes. Similar wall
charts will aid in teaching the following: Processing times and
temperatures; number of cans required for measured quantities
of produce,- recommended type of container for each produce-
instructions for making sirup and brine,- and the use of salt
tablets.

Patron's agreement

An agreement outlining policies and regulations
that have been adopted by the cannery committee is
usually presented to patrons the first time they come
to the cannery. Before operations begin, patrons are
required to sign this agreement indicating that they
fully understand its terms and are willing to comply.

Such an agreement might include the following :

1. The standards of operation and techniques of canning adopted
by the canning center.

2. Divisions of labor; namely, the work the patron will do at the
cannery and what services the cannery will supply.

3. Cost per can the patron will be expected to pav.

4. A list of materials and supplies to be furnished by the cannery
and those the patron must furnish.

5. A statement of plant policy on spoilage of products.

6. Regulations on registration and scheduling.

7. Rules on cancellation of appointments, either by patron or by
cannerv supervisor.

8. The types of produce that may be canned.

Appointments and scheduling

If the cannery is to operate with any degree of suc-
cess, patrons must make appointments with the super-
visor for the use of it. Such appointments should be
made several days in advance of the day the canning is
to be done so that a plan of work may be set up and
operating needs determined. Produce of like types
should be grouped in the quantities and sequence
necessary to insure a smooth flow of work and the
maximum use of the equipment.

During the peak production season it would be well
to have special days for canning produce in abundance,
such as peach day or corn day. Where it is necessarv
to can several kinds of produce in one day the number
should be kept to a minimum. Care should be taken
not to schedule produce that will compete for the same
equipment. Tomatoes, which are processed in the
water bath, can be scheduled for canning at the same
time as vegetables processed under pressure, such as
snap beans or peas. When the quantity of produce of
any one kind is not sufficient to till the retort or open-
process tanks, those products requiring the same proc-
essing time and temperature should be scheduled
together, if possible. In that way the full capacity
of each processing vessel can be utilized and the
maximum production for each day assured. Table 4,
on page 39, which gives the approximate number of
cans required for measured quantities of produce, will
be helpful in figuring the number of cans to be proc-
essed.

When scheduling vegetables and fruits, preference
should be given to the more perishable ones. The
harvest of root crops may easily be delayed if neces-
sary, so that perishable items, such as corn or peas at
the right stage of maturity for canning, can be cared
for promptly. Small fruits and berries need immediate
care if waste from spoilage is to be avoided.

A standard form, such as the one shown in figure 63,
will serve as an appointment schedule, production
record, and receipt for the amount paid by the patron.
It should be made out in duplicate so that both the
plant and the patron will have the same record.

50

Name...

Address.

Date

Time a. m__
Patron's No.
Telephone

p. m_

Produce

Amount to
be .canned

Size of can

Number of
cans

Cost per
can

Total cost

Remarks

Total number of cans.
Amount paid

Supervisor

Figure 63. — Patron's appointment record and receipt.

At the time the appointment is made the patrons
should be advised of the hour and day on which they
are to report to the cannery and how many helpers
to bring to assist with the job. This will vary with
the produce to be canned and the experience of the
worker. Where patrons are required to bring sup-

plies, such as sugar, they should be advised of the
amount needed. This will vary with the produce and
the way in which it is to be canned.

The supervisor should have a daily operating
schedule, using a form such as the one shown in
figure 64.

Month Day Year

Time

Patron's name

Patron's
number

Produce

Amount

Size of cans

Figure 64. — Daily operating schedule.

If such a schedule is made up as appointments are
made, the supervisor can more effectively regulate the
amount and kind of produce to be canned as well as
the number of patrons who will use the cannery on
any one day. To get the maximum use of equipment it
is well to schedule the largest group of patrons for early
in the day. If the cannery is to close at the end of a
normal working day, patrons should not be scheduled
for appointments later than 3 p. m. This will allow
the time necessary to complete canning operations and
the cleaning of the plant by closing time. During
peak periods of production it may be necessary to
schedule appointments over a longer operating day.

A review of the schedule in advance of the day of
operation makes it possible to adjust appointments
if changes need to be made. This advance check
will also allow time for making a plan of work so
that employees and volunteer workers can be in-
formed of their responsibilities and given necessary
training.

The number, size, and type of containers and corre-
sponding lids needed should be ascertained and checked
to see that they are on hand. Other supplies that
may be needed should also be determined and made
available. All facilities should be checked and equip-
ment should be adjusted for operation. Such fore-

51

thought will net improved efficiency in the clay's
operation.

Staggered lunch periods for regular employees
should be planned to insure continuous operation of
the plant throughout the day. Schedule one person
to relieve, as necessary, those in key positions. Each
employee should report to work as the day's schedule
requires his services. The boiler operator, for
example, should come early enough to have steam up
when operations begin. The sealer and retort opera-
tor need not report until later. Others are scheduled
according to their respective duties. Rest periods for
each employee should be allowed both during the
morning and afternoon.

Canning procedure

du(

Receiving produce

As patrons arrive with their produce it is checked
in and recorded on the individual patron's appoint-
ment record and receipt card. (See fig. 63-) The
patron is issued a number, which is also recorded on
the card. Canneries vary their methods of assigning
numbers. Some assign new numbers each day, some
each week, whereas others have their patrons use the
the same number for the entire canning season.
Where new numbers are assigned each day, or each
week, it is necessary to stamp the date on each can
in order to avoid confusion in identification of patrons'
produce. The condition of the produce at the time of
delivery to the cannery should be noted and reported
on the card under "Remarks" as this information
may be of value if spoilage occurs.

Unripe fruit or tomatoes, wilted vegetables, or
produce that has matured beyond the stage for
successful canning should be rejected. Produce show-
ing marked signs of spoilage should also be rejected.
If a patron insists upon canning such produce he
should be required to sign an agreement to the effect
that the cannery will not be held responsible for
spoilage or for the quality of the finished product.
If patrons bring more produce than can be handled
promptly it should be stored in a cool, well-ventilated
place. Such produce should be tagged with the
patron's number.

Preparation of produce

Preparation of the produce is usually assumed by
the patron and includes all the steps necessary for
getting the produce ready and placed into cans. Each
patron is given space at the preparation table and
instructions for preparing the particular product to be
canned. The supervisor should explain the steps in
preparation according to the sequence of operations
and explain the necessity of cleanliness and prompt
handling. Mistakes can be avoided if the sequence of
operations in the preparation of produce is printed on
charts and posted on the wall near the preparation
table. (See fig. 62.)

Grading

Grading for quality as practiced by commercial
canners is not necessary in a community cannery.
However, where produce is to be steamed for peeling,
it should be graded for size in order to get uniform
results. It is also desirable to grade for uniformity
of size where heat penetration in processing is a factor.
For instance, large beets and carrots must be cut in
wedges or cubes to insure proper heat penetration,
while the small ones may be canned whole.

Sorting

Sort and inspect produce for defects, throughout
the preparation period, to insure a product of the best
quality. As the produce is being removed from the
hamper discard all bruised, shriveled, discolored, or
soured portions. If produce has been held overnight,
it should be checked carefully for signs of sweating or
sliminess caused by overheating. In sorting, remove
immature and overripe produce. Insofar as is prac-
ticable, sand or dirt and foreign material should be
removed at this time, in order to expedite the wash-
ing process. Sorting is continued through all steps of
preparation and questionable portions should be dis-
carded rather than risk spoilage of the finished product.

Soaking

Soaking may be necessary before washing root crops
or other produce on which dirt has dried. However,
soak produce only when necessary for this step slows
up preparation.

Washing

Washing is not always the first step in the prepara-
tion of fruits and vegetables, but it is one of the most
important steps of the canning process. Its purpose
is to remove dirt and foreign material and to reduce
the number of spoilage organisms present on the raw
food. It also removes any spray residue that may have
been left on the produce. To obtain these results a
clean, safe, water supply is necessary. Water must be
changed often enough to assure a thorough cleansing
of the produce and to keep the number of bacteria
down to a minimum. Enough water must be used to
allow for moving and turning of the produce freely
in washing. When washing greens, small quantities
of them should be placed in the washing tank at one
time to avoid matting and to permit thorough cleans-
ing. Root crops will need to be scrubbed with vege-
table brushes. When washing small fruits use a large
strainer or wire basket that has a small mesh to avoid
crushing the fruit through unnecessary handling. The
fruit is placed in a shallow layer in a container and is
cleaned by dipping the basket up and down in the
water until the dirt and sand are removed.

Cutting, breaking, peeling

Cutting, breaking, peeling, or removing stems,
husks, or cores should be accompanied by close in-
spection of the produce and removal of all undesirable

52

portions. Heat penetrates faster in processing when
the produce is cut or broken in uniform sizes. Rapid
work will lessen discoloration from oxidation and
help to assure a finished product of high quality.

Discoloration

Discoloration in peaches, pears, and apples may be
avoided by rapid preparation. When delay cannot
be avoided after fruit is peeled and cut, the pieces of
fruit may be placed in a wire basket and dipped into a
solution of 2-percent acid brine.

Some products also are discolored through the use of
knives that have iron blades or when the cut pieces
are placed in a copper, iron, or galvanized iron con-
tainer. It is, therefore, best to use containers of
aluminum, tin, or unbroken granite. Beets will dis-
color after steaming if their preparation is not com-
pleted promptly.

It is important to use the proper type of can to avoid
discoloration. For instance, products containing
sulfur must be processed in C-enamel cans. If plain
cans are used, the sulfur in the product combines with
the metal in the can to form a tin sulfide, or iron
sulfide. Although food thus discolored is not harm-
ful when eaten it is unattractive in appearance.

Discoloration by oxidation may also be present in
canned food when head space is too great, when the
container is not properly filled with the medium, or
when exhausting has been insufficient. This type of
discoloration is not necessarily accompanied by
spoilage. Occasionally beets, carrots, or sweetpota-
toes may have darkened layers that are caused by
drought, excessive heat, or other conditions which
have retarded their growth. When growth is re-
sumed the darkened layers are formed. Such a prod-
uct is undesirable for canning because not only the
color but the flavor is affected. Moreover, heat
penetration is slower through the tough, woody
portion that forms these layers and, therefore, the
processing time given would be inadequate.

Scalding

Scalding is the heat treatment used for removing the
peel from such produce as tomatoes and peaches.
The fruit is placed in a wire basket and dipped into
boiling water only long enough to heat the peel.
The water must be boiling, because lower tempera-
tures and longer scalding periods will soften the fruit
instead of loosening the peel. Enough water must be
used to maintain boiling temperatures when the
produce is added and it must be changed frequently
enough for cleanliness. A short, quick dip in cold
water stops the heat treatment and shrinks the peel
so that it can be removed easily. A cold spray may
be used instead of the cold-water dip, but in either
case the cooling should last only long enough to shrink
or crack the peel on the fruit. Do not allow the
produce to stand in the cold water, but drain and peel
it at once.

Lye peeling

Sweetpotatoes, grapefruit, and some root crops may
be peeled with the aid of lye. The lye used for this
purpose is known commercially as caustic soda or
soda lye (chemically, sodium hydroxide). It is
inexpensive and at the same time most effective.
The strength of the lye solution will vary with the
kind of produce and the method of treatment. The
lye acts most vigorously when hot and therefore
should be kept at the boiling point. The amount of
lye used can be kept to a minimum and the action of
the lye can be made more effective if the produce is
first dipped into boiling water for a few seconds to
take the chill off. Do not expose the produce to the
lye solution longer than for the period given in the
processing instructions as the lye will attack the
edible tissue and impair its quality and flavor.

Produce dipped in lye solution for peeling must be
thoroughly washed. It is best to use slate or granite
containers for lye solution. Do not use wooden con-
tainers. Because the solution continually acts upon
the wood, such containers are difficult to clean and
may be a source of contamination. Care should be
exercised in preparing and using lye solution so that
workers may not be burned or their wearing apparel
damaged.

Where lye peeling is recommended, directions for its
use are included in the processing instructions.

Steaming

Steaming is the heat treatment used to loosen skins
before peeling root vegetables. This method is also
used to break down or soften for pulping such produce
as pumpkin, apples, and tomatoes. Steaming for
peeling is done under pressure.

For peeling, steam only long enough to loosen the
skin but not to cook the produce. Grade the vegeta-
bles for size when necessary, and adjust the time of
steaming accordingly, in order to avoid uneven results.
Produce that has been kept in storage will require a
longer steaming than that which is fresh .

When steaming is done to soften the produce for
pulping, use a steam-jacketed kettle or a retort.
Produce should be of the highest quality and should
be washed carefully and cut in uniform pieces for
even steaming. Peels or rinds are usually left on
since they are removed in the pulping process. If
steaming is done in a retort, use galvanized-wire
baskets, aluminum pans, or wooden slats to keep the
product from coming in contact with the uncoated
iron of the retort crate or the vegetables will become
discolored.

Retorts used in the steaming process are operated in
the same manner as when used for processing but
cleaning will be necessary before they are used again
for processing.

Pulping

Pulping or sieving is done to separate skins, seeds,
cores, and fibrous material from the pulp of the
steamed product. A pulping machine is desirable for

53

use where large quantities of produce are to be pulped.
Small quantities may be pulped through hand-
operated sieves. Work with these must be carried
on rapidly in order to prevent oxidation of the prod-
uct. When pulpers are fitted with a steam line,
discoloration and oxidation can be kept to a minimum.

Reducing

Reducing is the process used to evaporate moisture
from a pulped product or to evaporate liquid by
heating it in a steam-jacketed kettle or similar con-
tainer. It is desirable to reduce such products as
pumpkin and squash for improved texture. The
product is heated slowly until it reaches the desired
consistency. It is desirable to reduce soup stock also
to improve its flavor and to decrease the number of
cans required.

Blanching

Blanching is a heat treatment given some products
by immersing them in water at 180° to 200° F. and
following -with a cold dip or spray. The temperature
that gives best results in blanching varies with the
product. Steam blanching should not be used unless
a thermometer is attached to the steamer to indicate
the temperature of the steam. The main purposes of
blanching are to decrease the volume of the product
and to make it pliable in order to facilitate packing
and to obtain a well-filled can. It also aids in driving
the air and other gases from the plant cells.

In the case of peas and lima beans, blanching re-
moves from the surface the sticky, gelatinous sub-
stance which, when present, might contribute to the
increase of spoilage organisms. With some products,
blanching removes objectionable raw flavors; with
others, it fixes, or sets, the green color. Starchy
products, such as peas, lima beans, or corn, take up
water in blanching, thus reducing their swelling in
the cans. With all products, blanching may be con-
sidered the final cleansing before the product is packed
into cans. For that reason the blanching water must
never be used as a canning medium. Blanching
water must be changed often enough to insure its
cleanliness and to prevent recontamination of produce
by the accumulation of spoilage organisms.

Best results in blanching are obtained when baskets
are filled from one-half to two-thirds full. Over-
filling of baskets will result in an unevenly blanched
product. Matting of the leafy products may be
avoided by moving the basket back and forth rhrough
the blanching water. Continue blanching only long
enough to obtain the desired texture and color change.
Overblanching causes a loss of nutrients, color, and
flavor and a softened or slimy texture of the product.

With most products blanching is followed with a
cold dip of from 10 to 20 seconds. A spray may be
used for this purpose instead of the cold-water tank,
but in either case the cooling must be done quickly.
The purpose of cooling is to stop the blanching
process, separate the pieces of the product, and cool

them enough to permit immediate packing. Do not
start blanching if there is any reason for delay in com-
pleting the remaining steps of processing. Spoilage,
including flat sour, occurs more rapidly after the
produce is heated.

Preparation of containers

Cans must be inspected and cleaned before they are
used. Post a chart near the storage place -where cans
are issued to show the type of container most suitable
for a specific product. (See table 3, p. 38.) Issue cans
to the patrons on the basis of the number required per
bushel or other measure of produce that is to be canned.
Table 4 on page 39 will help in computing the number
of cans required for measured quantities of most fruits
and vegetables. The number of cans required for the
canning of meat may be estimated from table 13 on
page 79. The supervisor should record the number of
cans issued to each patron.

Just before filling, wash the cans in clean water.
Soap should never be used in washing cans. Save un-
necessary steps in the preparation of cans by using can
trays. Do not wash can covers as this possibly may
damage the gaskets. Instead, keep covers in cartons
in which they were shipped to protect them from dust
and moisture until they are to be used. They should
be placed directly from the carton on the filled cans
just before sealing.

Fil

ing of cans

All products should be packed into cans immedi-
ately after preparation. Cans should be packed
sufficiently full to assure well-filled cans after processing
is completed. Slack filling may cause buckling and
internal rusting of the cans. Overfilling slows heat
penetration and may result in spoilage. Those prod-
ucts to which heat has been applied in preparation will
spoil rapidly if left to stand at room temperature. If
packed promptly while hot the time of exhausting
to the recommended center-can temperature will
be shortened. If fruits, such as peaches, pears,
and apples, are left to stand after preparation, dis-
coloration will occur. Some products, such as fruits
and tomatoes, may be packed into cans as they are
prepared. Pack them closely to obtain well-filled
cans.

Use a scoop or similar equipment for pouring berries
into cans to avoid unnecessary handling. Cans may
be filled quickly with peas, snap beans, lima beans, or
corn by using the can as a scoop and dipping it into
the blanched product with one hand while using the
other to press the product into place. Filling cans in
this manner necessitates only one dip of the can into
the product and permits filling at a much higher
temperature than when done entirely by hand. Tap
the bottom of the can lightly on the table to settle the
product in it and to assure a firm pack. Sometimes it
is necessary to add to the product or remove some of it
after tapping in order to obtain the right head space.

54

Checking weight of can contents

In some instances it is desirable to check the drained
weight of the produce that is packed into the can.
This is the best way to prevent overfilling or under-
filling. Most commercial packers follow this prac-
tice. It is particularly important that community
canneries that can greens fill the cans by weight.
After blanching greens, drain them for a short time to
free them of excess water. Greens may then be packed
directly into the can and weighed before adding the
brine. Care must be taken not to exceed the recom-
mended maximum drained weight. In weighing
greens, allowance must be made for the weight of the
can. The maximum and minimum drained weights
for greens are given in the processing instructions.

Allowing for head space

Regardless of the method of filling it is important
that proper head space be allowed. Head space is the
distance between the level of the product in the can
and the top of the can. It varies with the product
and style of pack. For most products packed in
liquid a %-inch head space is sufficient. The head
space most satisfactory for each product is indicated
in the canning instructions in this publication. In no
case is it less than ){ inch when a canning medium is
used. When products, such as applesauce and pump-
kin, are packed without medium, only enough head
space is allowed to permit the sealing of cans as air
space between the product and the can lid will cause
discoloration of the top layer of food. Do not
consider the canning medium in measuring or adjust-
ing head space.

Adding canning medium

A canning medium (brine, sirup, or broth) is used
to fill the cans completely after the produce has been
packed to the proper head space. It is better to have
some canning medium spill over when sealing the
cans than to leave an air space between the product
and the lid. The medium should be added at a boiling
temperature to shorten the time for exhausting.

Brine is used as the canning medium for most
nonacid products. In making brine, canners' salt is
preferred since it dissolves faster and stays in solution
better than table salt. It may be purchased from any
salt manufacturer. Dairy salt may also be used.
Iodized salt or any salt with a filler added to prevent
lumping should not be used for canning. It is more
economical to purchase a seasonal supply of salt at
one time than to request patrons to furnish salt as
needed. Store salt where it will stay clean and dry
until it is used for brine. Impurities that will cause
spoilage may be added through unclean salt. In
making brine do not use water that is exceptionally
hard or that contains an excessive amount of iron or
other minerals. In some localities it may be neces-
sary to preheat, settle, and filter the water to make it
usable. To insure a uniform result, use a measured

volume of water and weigh the salt in making each
tank of brine.

Salt tablets and boiling water may be used instead of
brine. Instructions for preparing brine and using
salt tablets are given on pages 68-69.

Sirup is the canning medium used for most fruits
and for sweetpotatoes except those packed solid.
Table 9, listing the proportion of sugar to water,
should be followed in making the various weights of
sirup. Patrons should not use the time, equipment,
or space necessary to make individual lots of sirup.
It may be desirable to schedule the canning of fruit for
a definite period of the day and request patrons to bring
the amount of sugar that will be required for a sirup
of the consistency desired. For example, if a medium-
weight sirup is to be used, each patron should be
requested to bring 5 pounds of sugar for each bushel of
fruit to be canned.

When broth is used as the medium in canning meats
it should be skimmed free of fat. It is usually made
in a steam-jacketed kettle and dipped out for filling
into cans.

Sirup and brine should be made in metal tanks
provided for that purpose.

Exhausting

Exhausting is the heat treatment given to the
produce after the cans are filled and before they are
sealed. It has the following purposes:

(1) To expel air and other gases from the food cells
and to remove air that may have formed in pockets
between portions of food in filling cans. This process
relieves the strain on can seams during processing and
storing. If the air is not removed, it creates excess
pressure during processing and cooling and may cause
buckling of can ends with consequent straining of
seams. Removal of air also prevents internal rusting
and discoloration of tin which occur when the metal
reacts to oxygen. (2) To secure a sealing temperature
that will create an adequate vacuum in the can after
processing is completed. (3) To complete the expan-
sion or shrinkage of the product which assures a
maximum fill without overfilling.

Some products, such as applesauce, pumpkin,
squash, and cream-style corn, may not need to be
exhausted because they are preheated before sealing.
This is true if the recommended center-can tempera-
ture is maintained or exceeded. Instructions are given
on page 32 for the operation of batch-type exhaust
boxes used for exhausting produce.

Center-can closing temperature

The center-can closing temperature as referred to in
this publication is the temperature of the can contents
at the slowest heating point in the can at the time the
can is sealed. Figure 65 shows how to take the center-
can temperature of products that heat by convection
and those that heat by conduction.

The slowest heating point in products that heat by
convection is about halfway between the center and the
bottom of the can. Products canned in a medium,

55

such as peas and beans in brine, and fruit in sirup,
heat by convection.

The slowest heating point in products that heat by
conduction is at the center of the can. Products such as
pumpkin and squash, sweetpotatoes (solid pack),
cream-style corn, and ground meat (solid pack) heat
by conduction.

Center-can closing temperatures should be taken in
a representative number of cans at various locations
in the exhaust box before sealing is started. Keep the
water in the exhaust box at the simmering point until
all cans are removed and sealed to assure the proper
center-can closing temperature.

Vacuum

In order to maintain the canned product in good
condition it is necessary to have the proper vacuum.
The ends of the cans should contract on cooling and
remain slightly concave under average storage con-
ditions. The vacuum produced after processing will
vary -with the average can temperature. The average
can temperature is the temperature of the contents
of the can obtained by thoroughly mixing it at the
time of sealing. For products packed in a liquid
medium in No. 3 cans, or smaller ones, the average
can temperature should be at least 130° F. to assure
the proper vacuum. For products packed in a liquid
medium in No. 10 cans the product is usually ex-
hausted to an average can temperature greater than
130° F. to prevent distortion or the can ends during
processing. However, if the average can tempera-
ture is too great in No. 10 cans, the vacuum created
may be so high that paneling may result during cool-
ing due to the excess pressure on the outside of the
cans. If the instructions for each product given in
this publication are carefully followed, as to head

space, exhausting to the recommended center-can
temperature, sealing, and processing, sufficient vacuum
will be obtained.

Initial temperature

The term "initial temperature" designates the tem-
perature at the center of the can at the time the retort
reaches processing temperature. Where an initial
temperature is specified it should be regarded as a
prerequisite of the process given for that product.
The coolest can in any retort load should have an
initial temperature equal to or greater than the tem-
perature specified for that product. If a can is closed
at the recommended center-can closing temperature
and is then held for some time in the atmosphere of
the room before it is processed, the initial tempera-
ture will be lower than the closing temperature.
With those products for which initial temperature is
specified in the processing table, it is the initial tem-
perature and not the center-can closing temperature
that is an important factor from the standpoint of
sterilization.

To check the initial temperature, set aside the
first two cans removed from the exhaust box and put
on the covers but do not seal. When all cans to be
processed together are sealed and placed in the retort
take the center temperature of the cans that were set
aside. This temperature will indicate the initial
temperature of the batch at the time processing is
started. In those instances where more than one
initial temperature is given, the time for processing
will vary with the initial temperature. For produce
such as sweetpotatoes, pumpkin, and squash the
higher initial temperature is recommended, as the
processing period will be accordingly shorter.

Temperature taken at
point halfway between
center and bottom of
can

Temperature, taken at
center of can

Figure 65. — Method of taking center-can closing temperature of: ^4, Products heated by convection; B, products

heated by conduction.

56

Dealing

Sealing, or the permanent closing of the can, must
be done as rapidly as possible following the exhausting
of the product. Be sure that the sealer has been prop-
erly adjusted before sealing operations begin; other-
wise there will be delays which may impair the quality
of the product or cause spoilage. Check the sealer in
accordance with instructions given on page 28. As
cans are sealed an occasional inspection should be
made to determine whether the sealer is in need of
adjustment. Before sealing cans, press the contents
down with a spoon to check for the proper head space.
If the can is too full remove some of the produce. If
it is necessary to add produce to get the recommended
head space fill from a can that has been exhausted at
the same time and is at the same temperature as the
produce to be sealed. After adjusting head space, it
may be necessary to add canning medium to fill the
can completely and it should be added at boiling tem-
perature. Be sure that there are no food particles on
the rim of the can as these may prevent a perfect seal.

Marking cans

As cans are sealed, they are marked according to
contents and ownership. This is usually done by the
patron. If lids are marked before they are placed on
the cans care must be taken not to stack them. Place
a lid directly onto a can as it is lifted from the exhaust
box for sealing. The use of a code to identify the
product will simplify and expedite the marking of
cans. String beans, for example, may be identified by
the code SB, lima beans by LB. Community canneries
should set up a code for all products canned. The code
used should be the same throughout the season.
Likewise the patron's number should be used rather
than his full name. When marking cans it may be
desirable to include the date for identification in the
event of spoilage. This is particularly important
when the patrons' numbers are issued on a daily or
weekly basis.

Marking can be done with a soft lead pencil. Use
the rubber of the pencil to roughen the space on the
can that is to be marked. Marking can also be done
with a water-steam-proof ink and a brush pen or
rubber stamp. Individual rubber stamps for each
product are desirable or a numbering machine fitted
with letter and number bands may be used. The ink
used should be free of phenol as it will cause an un-
desirable flavor in the canned food. Satisfactory inks
and marking equipment may be obtained from com-
panies listed on page 83. It is important that cans be
free from grease when marked as ink will not stick to
a greasy surface. For this reason when canning meats,
it is advisable to mark the can lids before they are
placed on the cans for sealing. Marking should be
done rapidly so that sealing will not be delayed and
the products be permitted to cool. Space should be
provided on the sealing table for marking cans.

Stacking cans

Cans should be stacked in the retort crate in such a
manner as to permit free circulation of steam among
them. Heat penetration in canned foods packed in
liquid is mainly by convection currents. The general
trend of these currents is in a vertical direction. Con-
sequently, in the products being heated they seek
channels which permit such motion. If the products
packed in liquid have been arranged to permit the free
flow of convection currents and if cans are placed in the
proper position in the retort, heat penetration will be
facilitated. Where the packing of any product in the
can results in stratification as in the case of No. 10
cans of spinach, cans should be placed on their sides in
the retort to permit the free flow of convection
currents through the stratified layers. In the case of
asparagus spears which are packed parallel in the cans
in a vertical position, the channels containing liquid
are parallel to the spears and the speed of heat penetra-
tion is greater when the cans are placed upright in the
retort. For products such as peas and cut green beans
the rate of heat penetration is not so affected by the
position of the cans in the retort because the pieces are
small and evenly distributed throughout the liquid
medium.

Cans should not be placed directly on top of one
another but should be "staggered" to allow for rapid
and complete circulation of steam which will aid in
eliminating air from the retort. Solid or insuffi-
ciently perforated metal retort crates should not be
used because such equipment can lead to the formation
of low-temperature regions. Where slatted retort
crates with perforated metal bottoms are used, it is
well to place a wire rack under the cans to permit the
free flow of steam through the perforations and up
through the retort load.

Processing

The term "processing" as used in this publication
designates the heat treatment expressed in terms of
temperature and time given the product after the
container is permanently sealed. The basic or min-
imum requirement for the processing of any product is
that it be heated sufficiently to destroy bacteria of
known resistance to heat, which if not destroyed may
cause serious illness (see p. 59). There are also types
of heat-resistant micro-organisms which may cause
spoilage if the product is contaminated with them.
Consequently, the efficiency of any process must be
such that all micro-organisms are rendered harmless.
In some cases the count of spoilage bacteria may be so
high that the suggested processing may be inadequate
to prevent spoilage. It is, therefore, essential to keep
the bacterial count as low as possible by following
approved methods in the preparation of food products.

In the processing of canned foods it is always
assumed that the heat-resistant micro-organisms will
be located at the slowest heating point of the can
contents. Until this point has received adequate
heat, the contents of the can are not sterilized suf-

57

ficiently to control the bacteria. Processing times are
partly based on the rate at which heat is transferred to
this point. It is transferred from the walls of the
container to the contents by both convection and by
conduction. In the heating of canned foods packed
in liquid, such as peas, snap beans, and beets, heat
transference takes place mainly by convection and the
rise in temperature is rapid since there is constant
movement of the material so that at any time during
the heating temperature differences within the can are
small. Any substance which retards convection
currents decreases heat transference.

Solid foods heat by conduction and the process is
relatively slow since there is no transfer of material
from the hot to the cooler part of the can. In produce
that heats slowly, such as pumpkin, squash, and
sweetpotatoes (solid pack), the initial temperature is
part of the process as it determines the length of
processing time that will be required to make the
product keep safely (see p. 56). Both methods of
heat transference occur in tomato juice and fruit
juice containing pulp and therefore longer processes
are required than for clear, strained juices from which
the particles are removed.

Depending on the nature of the product, processing
should follow within % to 1 hour after sealing. If a
longer time is required to obtain enough cans to fill a
retort, processing of partial retort loads should be
practiced. The use of pressure canners for processing
small amounts of produce is a practical solution to this
problem.

Water-bath processing

The boiling-water process is used for acid products,
such as fruits, tomatoes, and sauerkraut, as the tem-
perature obtained (212° F.) is sufficient to kill all
actively growing bacteria and yeasts and the acid in
the food prevents the growth of any heat-resistant
spores that may be present. Fruit juices free from
pulp can be preserved by pasteurizing them in water at
180° F. for 20 minutes provided they are filled into
clean cans while hot. Tomato juices which contain
considerable pulp must be processed in the boiling-
water bath. The time for processing acid products
is given in the instructions for each product and in
table 10 (page 69). Instructions for operating the
open-process tanks used for water-bath processing are
given on page 24. These instructions should be care-
fully followed.

The temperature of boiling water varies with the
altitude, and it is necessary, therefore, to make cor-
rections in length of processing times at elevations
above sea level. When using the boiling water-bath
process at altitudes higher than sea level, add 1
minute for each 1,000 feet when the processing time
is 20 minutes or less; 2 minutes for each 1,000 feet
when the processing time is longer than 20 minutes.
The longer processing time required to compensate
for the lower temperatures at which water boils at
altitudes above sea level must be observed if actively
growing bacteria are to be destroyed and spoilage
prevented.

Steam-pressure processing

The steam-pressure process is used for all nonacid
vegetables, meats, and fish. In processing such
products the complete elimination of air from the
retort or pressure canner is a vitally important factor;
otherwise, the temperature will be lower than that
required for sterilizing the products. (Instructions
for operating these pressure vessels given on pp. 16-19
and 42-44 should be carefully followed.) A mini-
mum temperature of 240° F. is necessary to destroy
the heat-resistant spores of bacteria that may be
present. Although 240° F. will assure a safe product
when processing greens, such as spinach, chard, or
turnip tops, a temperature of 252° F. is recommended
in order to cut down the processing time and to obtain
a product of better quality. The time for processing
nonacid products at specified temperatures must be
carefully observed if spoilage from underprocessing
is to be prevented. If at any time during the process-
ing period the temperature drops more than 5° below
that specified, the produce should be given a complete
new cook, starting from the time the retort is brought
back to the specified processing temperature. Should
there be a temperature drop of from 1° to 5°, 2 minutes
should be added to the cook for each minute that the
temperature registered below the processing require-
ments. For example, if there were a 4° drop for 10
minutes it would be necessary to add 20 minutes to the
normal processing time. Furthermore, if products
must be reprocessed for any reason, such as failure of
cans to seal, or excessive buckling that causes a break
in the can seam, such products must be reprocessed
promptly in new cans for the full time at the tem-
perature given in the processing instructions for that
product. The time for processing nonacid products
is given in the instructions for each product and in
tables 12 and 14 (pp. 78 and 83). When processing

Table 8.—

Gage

pressure correspond!

ig to

specified

process-

,ng temperatures at various altitudes

°a

Feet above sea level —

N

0 F.

Z>

ca

IS

D2

500

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6.000

03 3

200

93. 3

205

0. 5

1. 8

0.
2.

3

96. 1

210

0.4

6.9

1. 4

98. 9

212

6. 6

6. 2

6. 5

1. 0

1. 5

2.0

2.4

2.

9

100. 0

215

0. 9

1. 1

1. 4

1.9

2. 4

2.9

3.3

3.

8

101. 7

220

2. 5

2.7

3. 0

3.4

3. 9

4. 4

4. 9

0.

3

104. 4

225___

4. 2

4.5

4. 7

5.2

5.7

6. 2

6. 6

7.

1

107. 2

230

6. 1

6.3

6.6

7. 1

7.6

8. 0

8. 5

9.

0

110. 0

235

8. 1

8.3

8.6

9. 1

9.6

10. 0

10. 5

11.

0

112. 8

240 '

10. 3

10. 5

10. 8

11. 3

11.7

12. 2

12. 7

13.

1

115. 6

242

11. 2

11. 4

11. 7

12. 2

12. 7

13. 1

13. 6

14.

1

116. 7

245

12. 6

12. 9

13. 1

13.6

14. 1

14. 6

15. 0

15.

5

118. 3

248

14. 1

14. 3

14. 6

15. 1

15. 6

16. 0

16. 5

17.

0

120. 0

250

15. 1

15.4

15. 6

16. 1

16. 6

17. 1

17. 5

18.

0

121. 1

252 i

16. 2

16. 4

16. 7

17. 2

17. 7

18. 1

18. 6

19.

1

122. 2

255

17. 8

18. 1

18. 3

18. 8

19. 3

19. 8

20. 2

20.

7

123. 9

260

20.7

21. 0

21. 2

21. 7

22. 2 22. 7

23. 1

23.

6

126. 7

i In community canneries where thermometers are not installed on retorls
and gages are used as guides in processing, it is important that a pressure of
10.3 pounds be maintained in order to assure a temperature of 240° F. and
a pressure of 16.2 pounds for a temperature of 252° F.

58

with steam pressure at altitudes higher than sea level
it is necessary to increase the pressure approximately
one-half pound for each 1,000 feet to attain the re-
quired temperature. Table 8 shows the gage pressure
that corresponds to specified temperatures at various
altitudes.

Cooling

Cooling of cans should follow immediately after
processing is completed to prevent overcooking of the
food. All acid products canned by the water-bath
method and most nonacid products packed in No. 3
cans, or smaller ones, can be successfully water-cooled
or air-cooled. Nonacid products such as greens proc-
essed at 252° F. may need to be cooled under pressure.
All nonacid products canned in No.. 10 cans must be
cooled under pressure; otherwise the ends of the cans
may buckle when the steam pressure is permitted to
drop after the cooking is completed. For instruc-
tions on cooling cans under pressure, see page 18. In
cooling acid products and those nonacid products not
requiring pressure cooling, cold running water should
be used whenever possible. Only pure water should
be used for cooling since the contraction of the can as
the vacuum is produced may draw water into the can.
If there are impurities in the water, spoilage may
result. The duration of the water-cooling period
should be sufficient to bring the temperature of the
contents to 100° F. This temperature is low enough
to prevent the growth of thermophilic bacteria and
still high enough to dry the can and prevent rusting.
Cans should be placed where cooling may be com-
pleted rapidly by air circulation. If the capacity of
the water-cooling equipment is inadequate or if a
shortage of water is experienced, cans should be
stacked so that they -will air-cool rapidly. In this
case cans should be stacked on their sides in single
rows and space should be allowed for air circulation
between rows. The cans should be arranged parallel
to the cross ventilation of the room. Careful atten-
tion to the factors affecting air circulation may serve
to prevent retarded cooling and to safeguard against
spoilage by thermophilic bacteria. If cans are
stacked before they are completely cooled there may
be enough heat left to cause stack burn and flat sour
spoilage in those at the center of the stack. For the
same reason cans should not be placed in cartons or
stacked in baskets, for removal from the cannery,
until they are completely cooled.

Storage

Patrons should be advised to place their canned
foods in a dry, well-ventilated space. The tempera-
ture should be as near constant as is possible and
moderately cold but not freezing. Avoid storage
space near steam pipes, radiators, or stoves, as high
storage temperatures may impair the flavor, texture,
and color of the canned products and the excessive
moisture will cause the cans to rust. Patrons should
be encouraged to report spoilage in order that its cause
may be determined and future losses from spoilage be
prevented.

Spoilage

Spoilage in canned foods may be due to allowing
produce to stand too long during the period of prepa-
ration, to leakage through a faulty closure, or to
underprocessing. Bacteria present the most serious
problem in canning because of the large number of
kinds and the wide range of temperatures at which
they grow. Some are easily killed while others form
heat-resistant spores. Certain of these spores can sur-
vive many hours in boiling water and make necessary
the severe cooking given to nonacid foods. If for any
reason foods are underprocessed the bacterial spores
present may grow and spoilage will result. Molds
are destroyed with comparatively little heat and are
present only when processing has been insufficient, or
when there is a faulty seal through which the fungi
may enter the can. Food on which mold grows
becomes less acid and therefore favors the growth of
bacteria that would not develop in an acid medium.
Yeasts also are destroyed at relatively low heat.
They grow most favorably where sugar and acid are
present and cause spoilage by the production of alcohol
and gas. Spoilage is not always indicated by the
appearance of the can or of its contents. This is par-
ticularly true in the case of flat-sour spoilage and may
be true of botulinus spoilage.

Some of the common types of spoilage with which
canners have to contend are as follows :

Flat-

sour

Souring in canned products is caused by the action
of the thermophilic (heat-loving) bacteria which
grow most favorably at temperatures from 100° to
145° F. A can that contains sour products and that
shows no evidence of swelling is known as a flat-sour.
Thermophilic bacteria form extremely heat-resistant
spores and if these are present in any number the
processes recommended are inadequate to destroy all
of them. Spoilage due to these bacteria is usually
indicated by a sharp sour odor and flavor, and a cloudy
liquor. There is no indication that spoilage has oc-
curred until the can is opened. This type of spoilage
may develop either during storage at high tempera-
tures or at any stage in the canning process when the
product is allowed to remain at a temperature favor-
able to the growth of flat-sour bacteria. It often
occurs when cans have not been sufficiently cooled
after processing.

Botulinus

Bacillus botulinus, a spore-forming bacterium, is
present in most soils and may be present in any food.
These organisms cannot be completely removed by
washing. The bacteria themselves are not harmful
and we eat them every day in our fresh foods. How-
ever, when these bacteria are sealed in a can of non-
acid food and the can is not properly processed, the
spores of the bacteria will grow. These spores grow
best at temperatures ranging between 50° and 100° F.
and only in the absence of oxygen. Underprocessed

59

nonacid foods kept under average storage temperatures
provide perfect conditions for the growth of botulinus
spores. The spores are heat-resistant and can survive
for long periods of time in boiling water. It would be
necessary to boil nonacid foods, such as beans, corn,
peas, meats, and fish, for from 6 to 10 hours or even
longer to accomplish a 100-percent kill. Obviously it
is impossible to process these foods for such a length of
time and also preserve their flavor, color, and nutri-
ment to the highest degree. A shorter period of time
for the destruction of these dangerous botulinus
spores is made possible only by processing under
pressure. However, if underprocessing occurs due to
inadequate venting of retorts or pressure canners, or if
there is failure to maintain the temperature for the
specified time for processing each of these products,
the spores may grow and produce toxin. This toxin
is one of the most poisonous substances known.

There may be almost no evidence of spoilage when
the toxin produced by Bacillus botulinus is present.
Boiling the canned food will usually indicate this
spoilage by a bad or ' ' off' ' odor. Boiling the food for
10 minutes will destroy the toxin in all vegetables
except corn and spinach. They should be boiled for
20 minutes. Any food suspected of being spoiled
should be destroyed. Botulinus spores will not grow
in an acid medium. Therefore, acid foods such as
fruits and tomatoes may be safely processed in boiling
water (212° F.). Although the spores do not grow
in an acid medium they are still alive and if this
medium should be changed in any way, such as the
destruction of acid by the growth of mold, they may
be able to develop and liberate toxin. For this reason
it is advisable never to use any canned food which
shows signs of mold growth.

Dwells

"Swells" is a term applied to cans when the ends
are bulged. This condition may also be referred to
as "flippers" or "springers," the latter term being
used when the cans show bulging at only one end.
The gas produced by the spoilage of the can contents
may result from the growth of bacteria that are
present in underprocessed foods or of those that have
entered the can through a faulty seam. If swelling
occurs in cans that have a good vacuum after proces-
sing is completed and have no defects in the seams, it is
the result of underprocessing. Swells from under-
processing sometimes develop in a few days but often
spoilage may be delayed for weeks or even months.
There is an objectionable sour odor with this type of
spoilage and a darkening of the product from the
action of the gas.

Hyd

rogen springers

Hydrogen springers or hydrogen swells are cans
that contain hydrogen gas produced by the reaction of
the food product with the metal of the can. Swells
due to this chemical action as a rule develop more
slowly than those that result from bacterial growth

and there is no odor to the gas produced. The
product may look normal or somewhat bleached in
appearance but will have no further indication of
spoilage. Hydrogen springers may develop when
colored products, particularly red ones, have been
canned in plain tin or in enamel cans that have been
damaged through careless handling or sealing.

Stack burn

Stack burn results from placing warm cans in
stacks or cartons where the circulation of air is not
adequate to complete the cooling process rapidly.
The product consequently softens and darkens and
may become caramelized.

Foreign flavors

Foreign flavors in canned foods are usually acquired
before the product is packed into cans. The acquired
flavor may be due to the use of unclean crates for har-
vesting the product or to undesirable storage condi-
tions. Fruit is very likely to take up flavor from
long storage in wooden boxes. Any produce acquires
a foreign flavor quickly when held in cold storage
where there is little ventilation or when permitted
to remain in containers until mold develops.

Disposal of spoiled foods

Always play safe. Do not give people, animals,
or poultry a chance to taste spoiled canned food.
Burn food that is spoiled, or, with a stick stir several
spoonfuls of lye into the can of spoiled food and let it
stand 24 hours — safely out of the reach of children
or pets. Then bury the food, lid, can, and stick.

Canning instructions

The instructions given in this publication for proc-
essing both acid and nonacid foods have been adapted
from commercial canning practices and are based on
suggestions made by the National Canners Associa-
tion. They are intended as a guide for community
canneries that use tin containers. If it is necessary
to use glass jars it is recommended that their use be
limited to the canning of acid products by the water-
bath method.

These processes, it must be kept in mind, are de-
signed for use in plants where the quality of the
produce canned, the equipment used, plant sanitation,
and supervision are carefully controlled. The proc-
esses are adequate for community canneries where the
conditions of operation and supervision meet the
standards that have been suggested.

All processing times are based on temperatures at
sea level. Altitude adjustments will need to be made
in accordance with instructions given on page 58.

60

Canning fruits, tomatoes, and other acid foods

Fruits, tomatoes, and other acid foods are processed
in a water bath at 212° F., the temperature of boiling
water at sea level. This temperature is sufficient to
kill all actively growing bacteria and yeasts and the
acid in the food prevents the growth of any heat-
resistant spores that may be present. Read carefully
the discussion on canning procedures for acid foods,
page 58.

Fruits may be canned with or without sugar. Cane
and beet sugars are equally good for sweetening food.
Table 9 gives the proportion of sugar and water for
various densities of sirup.

Table 9. — Proportions of sugar and water for

sirups

Percentage
of sugar

Consistency of sirup

Sugar needed per gallon
of water

20

30

40

50

60 _

Light

Moderately light -
Medium

Moderately heavy
Heavy

Lbs.
2
3
5
8
12

Ozs.

2

10

9

6

8

Cups

5

8
12i/2
19
28

Qts.
1/4

2

43/4
7

Prepare sirup in advance of the time it is to be used.
Boil the sugar and water together for 5 minutes to
dissolve the sugar and remove the air from the sirup.
Skim off any scum that forms on top. The sirup
should not be boiled longer than the time specified
because the water will evaporate and the desired con-
sistency will not be obtained. Reheat to boiling point
before filling cans.

The quantity of sugar needed may be estimated from
table 9. From % to 1 cupful of sirup should be allowed
for each No. 2 can of fruit.

All fruits and fruit juices can be successfully canned
without the use of sugar. For jelly making, pie filling,
or for salads, such fruits serve very well. Fruit canned
without sugar is not nearly so good for sauce as fruits
sweetened when canned. The use of sugar helps to
preserve the color, texture, and flavor of the fruit.

Apple butter

Container. — Use plain cans.

Quality of produce. — Poorly shaped or windfall apples
of good flavor may be used for making apple butter.
The fruit should be fully ripe and sound, that is, free
from rot, mold, bruises, worm holes, and disease.
Dry or withered apples should not be used. The
trimmings, such as parings and cores, of canning
apples may also be used in the preparation of apple
butter.

Preparation. — Wash apples thoroughly to remove
dust and spray residue. Cut away any bruised por-
tion or blemishes. Section the apples, and remove
the blossom and stem ends. Cook apples slowly
until soft in a steam-jacketed kettle or steamer.
Only a small amount of water is needed for steaming.
Run steamed apples through a pulper or sieve to
remove skins, cores, and seeds. One bushel (50

pounds) of apples will produce from 8 to 10 gallons
of pulp. The following basic formula may be used;
spices and sugar may be varied as desired:

10 gallons apple pulp 1% tablespoonfuls ground all-

10 gallons cider spice

3)4 tablespoonfuls ground cin- 15 pounds sugar (granulated or
namon brown)

1]4. tablespoonfuls ground cloves

Heat the 10 gallons of cider until it is reduced to
about 3 gallons. Cook the apple pulp in a steam-
jacketed kettle, stirring frequently to prevent scorch-
ing. Add the reduced cider after the pulp begins to
thicken. Sugar is added with the cider. Brown
sugar adds to the flavor of apple butter. Continue
cooking until the product has been reduced to approxi-
mately 45 percent of its original volume. Spices
should be mixed together in a small amount of cold
water and added to the butter 10 minutes before cook-
ing is completed. Spice that is added dry will cause
lumps and, when cooked too long, will lose flavor.
Apple butter is sufficiently cooked when liquid does
not separate after a spoonful is dropped on a saucer.

Filling. — Fill cans with hot apple butter to within
Ys inch of the top.

Exhausting. — It is not necessary to exhaust apple
butter that is filled into cans and sealed at the tem-
perature of 190° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans at once and place in open process
tank.

Processing. — Process No. 2, No. 3, or No. 10 cans in
boiling water (212° F.) for 10 minutes.

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is com-
pleted cool cans as rapidly as possible to approxi-
mately 100° F. This leaves enough heat in the cans
to dry them and to prevent rusting. When the cans
are removed from the cooling water they should be
tilted, to drain off excess water, and they should be
stacked in a well-ventilated place until cold. Do not
put them into cartons until they are cold and dry.

Apples in sirup

Container. — Use plain cans.

Quality of produce. — Apples for canning should be of
good flavor and color and have a firm texture. Those
with white flesh and high acidity give the best flavor.
Apples should be free from rot, bruises, and worm
infestation. For uniform texture and appearance
varieties should be kept separate.

Preparation. — Wash apples carefully to remove all
traces of dirt and spray residue. Apples may be pared
and cored by machines or by hand; in canning large
quantities it is preferable to use paring machines.
Trim off any blemishes from pared apples and dip the
apples at once in a 3-percent salt solution (4 ounces of
salt to 1 gallon of water) to prevent discoloration.
Slice apples into quarters or eighths using a stainless
steel knife or apple slicing device.

Soaking. — Soak sliced apples in a 3-percent salt
solution to remove as much oxygen as possible, if the
canned product is to be held over a period of several
months. If this is not done, the oxygen in combina-
tion with the acid of the apples will develop springers

61

and cause perforations in the containers. The hard
varieties of apples should be soaked for 20 minutes in
the salt solution at 130° F. Soft varieties should be
soaked for 20 minutes in the salt solution at room
temperature (70° F.). Remove apples from salt
solution and wash thoroughly. Any salt left in the
apples may also develop springers and cause perfora-
tions in the containers. If apples are to be used
within a few months it is not necessary to soak them
in the salt solution.

Blanching. — Blanch apples by placing slices in a
wire basket and immersing in hot water at 180° to
200° F. until the slices are pliable but not soft. The
blanching time varies with the variety of apples.
Dip blanched apples in cold water and remove them
immediately.

'Filling. — Fill apples into cans immediately after
blanching. Press the slices into the cans as closely
as possible without crushing them. Fill to within
one-fourth inch of the top of cans. Add boiling
sirup or water to completely fill the cans. A light
sirup made in the proportions given in table 9 is
generally used.

Exhausting. — Exhaust apples to a center-can temper-
ature of 190° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans as soon as the exhaust tempera-
ture is reached.

"Processing. — Process No. 2, No. 3, or No. 10 cans of
apples in boiling water (212° F.) for 10 minutes.

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed,
cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F. This
leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and to
prevent rusting. When the cans are removed from
the cooling water they should be tilted, to drain off
excess water, and then stacked in a well-ventilated
place until cold. Do not put cans in cartons until
they are cold and dry.

Appl

esauce

Container. — Use plain cans.

Quality of produce. — Applesauce of good quality may
be made from small, poorly shaped apples if they
are sound and of good flavor. Any apples to be used
must be free from mold, bruises, and worm holes.

Preparation. — Wash apples carefully to remove all
traces of dirt and spray residue. Apples for sauce
need not be pared. Cut away blemishes and bruised
portions and remove cores and stem and blossom ends.
Trim carefully to assure applesauce of desirable flavor
and color. Applesauce made with unpared apples
will be of a darker color than that made from pared
apples. If a light applesauce is desired pare the apples
and quarter or grind for steaming.

Precooking. — Use a steam-jacketed kettle or large
stockpot for steaming apples. Cook only long enough
to soften apples. Put the unpared apples through a
pulper or sieve to remove the skins. Pared apples
that have been quartered or ground need not be sieved.
The quartered, pared apples will make a lumpy apple-
sauce, suitable for pies. Add one cupful of sugar for
each gallon of apple pulp. Heat to boiling point
(212° F.).

Filling. — Fill boiling applesauce into cans leaving
only enough head space to allow for placing a lid on
the can.

Exhausting. — It is not necessary to exhaust apple-
sauce if it is filled into cans at boiling temperature and
sealed immediately. To insure a high closing temper-
ature, cans should not be filled faster than they can be
sealed.

Sealing. — The sealing temperature should not be
below 190° F. Do not permit cans to cool before
processing.

Processing. — Process applesauce, in boiling water
(212° F.), as follows:

Size of can : Minutes

No. 2 10

No. 2^ 15

No. 3 15

No. 10 20

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed,
cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F. This
leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and to
prevent rusting. When the cans are removed from
the cooling water they should be tilted to drain off
excess water, and stacked in a well-ventilated place
until cold. Do not put cans into cartons until cold
and dry.

Apricots

Container. — Use plain cans.

Quality of produce. — Use apricots that are fully ripe
but firm. Be careful to avoid bruising fruit in han-
dling or in transportation.

Preparation. — Remove green, overripe, bruised, or
defective fruit. Wash thoroughly. Apricots may be
canned in four ways — as pitted halves unpeeled, pitted
halves peeled, whole unpeeled, and whole peeled.
For peeling, dip the apricots into boiling water for
about 1 minute, then plunge them into cold water and
peel. Halve and pit after peeling. If desired, one or
two pits may be added for flavor to each can of pitted
apricots.

Filling. — Fill cans to within one-quarter inch of the
top. Pack halved apricots in overlapping layers, pit
side down. Fill cans completely with boiling sirup.
Use a medium sirup made in the proportions given m
table 9.

Exhausting. — Exhaust apricots to a center-can
temperature of 160° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately after removal from
the exhaust box. Do not permit cans to cool before
processing.

Processing. — Process apricots in boiling water (212°
F.), as follows :

Size of can: • Minutes

No. 2 25

No. !}{ 35

No. 3 35

No. 10 40

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed,
cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F. This
leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and to
prevent rusting. When the cans are removed from
the cooling water they should be tilted, to drain off

62

excess water, and then stacked in a well-ventilated
place until cold. Do not put cans into cartons until
cold and dry.

Berries 2

Container. — Use R-enamel cans.

Quality of produce. — All berries should be canned as
soon as possible after picking. They should be ripe
but firm and free from mold or other signs of spoilage.
Berries cannot be held long without a high percentage
of loss. They should be harvested and transported in
shallow, well-ventilated crates to avoid heating or
mold.

Preparation. — Sort berries to remove green, overripe,
or defective fruit, and leaves, stems, or other foreign
material. Blackberries, dewberries, loganberries and
raspberries should be placed in shallow layers in a
large colander or small-mesh wire basket and washed
under gentle sprays of water, or they may be dipped
up and down gently in water to remove dirt and
foreign material. Do not let berries stand in water;
remove them as soon as they are clean. To wash blue-
berries and huckleberries, immerse them in a sufficient
quantity of water to float leaves or foreign material
that may be present. This will expedite handling.

Filling. — Fill berries into cans to within one-quarter
inch of the top, packing them as closely as possible
without crushing the fruit. Fill cans completely with
boiling sirup. Use a medium sirup made in the
proportions given in table 9.

Exhausting. — Exhaust berries to a center-can tem-
perature of 170° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately after removal from
the exhaust box. Do not permit cans to cool before
processing.

Processing. — Process berries in boiling water (212°
F.), as follows:

Size of can: Minutes

No. 2 15

No. 2^ 20

No. 3 20

No. 10 25

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed,
cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F. This
leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and to
prevent rusting. When the cans are removed from the
cooling water they should be tilted, to drain off
excess water, and then stacked in a well-ventilated
place until cold. Do not put cans into cartons until
cold and dry.

Cherries, sour

Container. — Use R-enamel cans.

Quality of produce. — Sour cherries should be fully ripe
so that the full color and flavor are developed. They
are generally picked without stems and should be
canned promptly to prevent loss from contamination
or mold.

Preparation. — Sort to remove wormy, bruised, over-
ripe or underripe fruit and foreign material. Wash
thoroughly to remove dirt or spray residue and let them

2 Strawberries are better in jam or as a preserve than as a plain
canned product.

stand in cold running or iced water sufficiently long to
chill them thoroughly. This will make them more
plump and easier to pit. It will also facilitate the
removal of wormy fruit which usually floats. When
thoroughly chilled, pit. Pitting may be greatly
facilitated by the use of a cherry-pitting machine.

Filling. — Fill pitted cherries into cans to within
one-fourth inch of the top, pressing cherries down to
assure a full pack. Add boiling water or sirup to fill
the can completely. A medium, moderately heavy, or
heavy sirup may be used and should be made according
to the proportions given in table 9.

Exhausting. — Exhaust cherries to a center can tem-
perature of 170° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately after removal from
the exhaust box. Do not permit cans to cool before
processing.

Processing. — Process cherries in boiling water (212°
F.), as follows:

Size of can: Minutes

No. 2 15

No. 2}i 20

No. 3 20

No. 10 30

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed,
cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F. This
leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and to
prevent rusting. When the cans are removed from the
cooling water they should be tilted, to drain off ex-
cess water, and then stacked in a well-ventilated place
until cold. Do not put cans into cartons until cold
and dry.

Cherries, sweet

Container. — Use plain cans for the light-colored
cherries and R-enamel cans for the dark-colored
cherries.

Quality of produce. — Cherries should be ripe but firm
and should be canned while they are fresh. Fruit
showing bruises or signs of rot should not be used.

Preparation. — Discard bruised, overripe, underripe,
rotten, or otherwise inferior fruit. Remove leaves,
stems, and other foreign material. Wash thoroughly.
If cherries are to be pitted they should be thoroughly
chilled first to prevent loss of juice in pitting. Prick-
ing helps to prevent splitting of the unpitted cherries
during processing.

Filling. — Fill cherries into cans to within one-
fourth inch of the top, packing them as closely as
possible without crushing the fruit. Add boiling
sirup to fill the cans completely. Use a medium or
light sirup made in the proportions given in table 9.

Exhausting. — Exhaust cherries to a center-can tem-
perature of 170° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately after removal from
exhaust box. Do not permit cans to cool before
processing.

Processing. — Process cherries in boiling water (212°
F.), as follows:
Size of can: Minutes

No. 2 15

No. 2^ 20

No. 3 20

No. 10 30

63

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed,
cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F. This
leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and prevent
rusting. When the cans are removed from the cooling
water they should be tilted, to drain off excess water,
and then stacked in a well-ventilated place until cold.
Do not put cans into cartons until cold and dry.

Fruit juices

Container. — Use R-enamel cans.

Quality of produce. — Use only sound, well-ripened
fruit for juices. Grapes, black and red currants, black-
berries, elderberries, cherries, and plums may be used
for making fruit juices.

Preparation. — Work with only such quantities of
fruit as can be processed promptly. Wash the fruit,
drain, and crush. Remove the seeds from cherries
before crushing as seeds change the flavor of the juice.
Add -water, if desired, to thin the juice — about one-
half cupful to each pound of fruit except to berries,
which require no water. Heat slowly to 170° to 180°
F. and hold for several minutes, or until the juice can
be separated from the pulp. To avoid overcooking
and to preserve as much as possible of the original
flavor and color, check the temperature with a
thermometer as the fruit is precooked and the juice is
pasteurized. Strain through a double thickness of
cheesecloth or put in a fruit press to extract the juice.
If a fruit press is used avoid crushing the seeds of
berries. Crushed seeds will change the flavor of the
juice. A second straining without pressure makes the
juice clearer. Sugar helps to preserve color and flavor
but it may be omitted. If desired, add sugar, about
% to 1 cupful to a gallon of juice. Heat the juice to
160° to 170° F.

Filling. — Fill the cans to the top with the hot juice.

Exhausting. — It is not necessary to exhaust fruit
juices if filled into cans at a temperature of 160°
to 170° F.

Sealing. — Seal at once and place in open process tank.

Processing. — Process No. 2, No. 2%, or No. 3 cans
of clear fruit juice at simmering point (180° F.) for
20 minutes. This processing is not safe for fruit juices
that contain pulp.

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is com-
pleted, cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F.
This leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and to
prevent rusting. When the cans are removed from the
cooling water they should be tilted, to drain off excess
water, and then stacked in a well-ventilated place
until cold. Do not put cans into cartons until cold
and dry.

Grapefruit

Container. — Use plain cans.

Quality of -produce. — In order to obtain a canned
product of good quality it is best not to can grapefruit
until it has reached a full-ripe stage. The longer the
fruit is allowed to hang on the tree the less acid and
less bitter will be the final product. Fruit with skin
blemishes is satisfactory but that which shows any
signs of decay should be discarded. Grapefruit may

be stored a week or more before processing if kept in
a cool well-ventilated place. Removal from a cold
storage room to a warm, humid atmosphere will cause
sweating which may promote decay of the fruit.
Such fruit should be processed the same day or spread
out to dry.

Preparation. — Grapefruit prepared in small quanti-
ties is usually peeled by hand. Cut off both ends to
the depth of the peel but not deep enough to open the
segments. Slit the remaining peel parallel with the
center at points corresponding to quarters, sixths, or
eighths. Tear off the peel, taking as much of the
white membrane as possible. Most of the bitterness
of grapefruit comes from the white membrane which
must be removed if a product of good quality is to be
obtained. When working with large quantities of
grapefruit it may be desirable to peel them with
the aid of a lye solution. If a lye solution is used the
grapefruit should be slightly underripe. The whole
fruit is placed in boiling water for 3 to 6 minutes or a
sufficient length of time to loosen the outer or yellow
peel from the deeper layers of the white membrane,
then by quarter scoring the rind as in hand peeling the
peel can be readily removed, leaving only a thin
layer of the white membrane on the outside of the
fruit or juice cells. This membrane is then removed by
passing the fruit through a solution of boiling lye
(caustic soda). The principle is the same as in the
removal of skin from peaches. The lye solution used
is prepared by dissolving 1% to 3 ounces of granulated
lye in 1 gallon of water. It must be kept boiling.
The time of submersion is usually 25 to 35 seconds.
The fruit is then washed thoroughly in a cold water
bath or beneath cold water sprays of sufficient force
to wash off the particles of membrane as well as all
traces of the lye. Separate the grapefruit into halves,
working from the bloom end and being careful not to
break the juice cells more than necessary. A wooden
or bamboo knife or a dull case knife is used for this
purpose and for separating the segments. Working
with one-half of the grapefruit, insert the knife blade
just under the covering membrane of the top segments.
Push the knife outward and loosen the membrane at
the rind edge. This leaves the top membrane free
except at the center. Loosen any outside membrane
at the rind, then remove the seeds, working toward
the center. Insert the knife below the section near
the center and push outward lifting the section from
its membrane. Continue the operation until all
segments are removed. The segments are placed in
aluminum pans or packed directly into cans.

Filling. — Pack segments of grapefruit closely into
No. 2 cans to within one-fourth inch of the top,
keeping the rounded side of the segment to the side of
the can. Add a medium or moderately heavy sirup,
made according to proportions given in table 9, to
fill the can completely. To permit the sirup to flow
more freely into the space between the segments insert
a knife down next to the side of the can. Some prefer
to put a small amount of sirup in the can before pack-
ing the segments. This assures an even distribution
of sirup throughout the can.

64

Exhausting. — Exhaust grapefruit slowly to a center-
can temperature of 160° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately after removal from
the exhaust box. Do not permit cans to cool before
processing.

Processing. — Pasteurize No. 2 cans in a water bath
of 180° F. for 10 minutes. This should give a center-
can temperature of 165° • Use a thermometer to check
the temperature of the water bath, taking care to keep
it at 180° throughout the pasteurizing period. A
higher temperature will cause a softening of the fruit
and will destroy the natural fruit flavor; a lower tem-
perature may result in spoilage. It is desirable to
have the water at 200° when the cans are added.

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed,
cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F. This
leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and to
prevent rusting. When the cans are removed from
the cooling water they should be tilted, to drain off
excess water, and then stacked in a well-ventilated
place until cold. Do not put cans into cartons until
cold and dry.

Peaches

Container. — Use plain cans.

Quality of produce. — Select peaches that are fully
ripe but firm. Peaches for canning should be slightly
less ripe than for eating fresh. Soft fruit should be
used for butter or preserves. Use care to avoid bruis-
ing fruit in handling or in transportation.

Preparation. — Remove green, overripe, or defective
fruit. To peel freestone peaches,3 place them in a
blanching basket and dip into boiling water for
approximately 1 minute or until the skins slip easily.
The blanching time will vary with the ripeness of the
fruit. Water under boiling temperatures will cook
rather than loosen the skin of peaches. Remove from
boiling water and dip into cold water to stop the
peaches from heating and to loosen their skins. Do
not permit peaches to stand in cold water. Slip off
skins, cut peaches in halves, and discard the pits.
Peaches may be canned either as halves or slices.
If desired, one cracked pit may be added to each can,
for flavor.

To peel clingstone peaches, or freestone peaches if
large quantities are to be handled, dip them into a
boiling lye solution for 15 to 30 seconds. The solu-
tion is made by adding from l1^ to 4 ounces (approxi-
mately \)'i to 4 tablespoonfuls) of a standard brand of
granulated lye (caustic soda) to 1 gallon of water.
The lye solution may be prepared in the enamel or
slate-type sinks often used in community canneries for
blanching. Leave peaches in the lye solution long
enough to loosen but not to remove the skins. If a
large quantity of peaches is being handled at the
cannery in any one day, peeling by the lye method can
be expedited if the peaches are halved and pitted first
and dipped in hot water long enough to heat the sur-
face. This lessens the quantity of lye required, makes
the period of contact shorter and the attack on the
peaches shallower. Precaution should be taken not

3 Clingstone peaches may be peeled by the same method but are
more readily peeled when dipped into a lye solution.

to let the peaches stand in the solution longer than
the period designated or the product will absorb the
solution to such an extent that the flavor will be
impaired. Transfer to a tank of cold water, raise and
lower the basket several times, and shake slightly.
Repeat the procedure in a second tank of cold water.
This should wash the lye off the peaches and remove
the skins. Then proceed as for freestone peaches.

If it is necessary for peaches to stand any length of
time after peeling and before filling into cans, dis-
coloration may be prevented by dipping the fruit for
2 minutes in an acid-brine solution made of 2 table-
spoonfuls of vinegar and 2 tablespoonfuls of salt
added to each gallon of water needed.

Filling. — Pack halved peaches closely into cans in
overlapping layers, pit side down. Fill to within
one-fourth inch of the top of can. Add boiling sirup
to fill the can completely. A medium or heavy sirup
made according to proportions given in table 9 may
be used.

Exhausting. — Exhaust peaches to a center-can tem-
perature of 160° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately after removal from
the exhaust box. Do not permit cans to cool before
processing.

Processing. — Process peaches in boiling water (212°
F.), as follows:

Size of can : Minutes

No. 2 25

No. V/i 35

No. 3 35

No. 10 45

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is com-
pleted, cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F.
This leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and
to prevent rusting. When the cans are removed from
the cooling water they should be tilted, to drain off
excess water, and then stacked in a well-ventilated
place until cold. Do not put cans into cartons until
cold and dry.

Pears

Container. — Use plain cans.

Quality of produce. — Pears develop a better flavor and
finer texture if they are taken from the tree when
mature and firm and held in crates for 5 to 10 days for
ripening.

Preparation. — Discard bruised, rotten, wormy, or
otherwise inferior fruit. Chill pears, cut in halves,
and remove the core. A coring hook is desirable if
many pears are to be cored. Trim away any blemishes
as the fruit is pared. If it is necessary for pears to
stand any length of time after paring and before filling
into cans, discoloration may be prevented by dipping
them into an acid-brine solution. To make this brine
use 2 tablespoonfuls of vinegar and 2 tablespoonfuls
of salt for each gallon of water needed. Dip the pears
into the solution for 2 minutes. Precaution should
be taken not to let pears stand in the solution longer
than the period designated or the product will absorb
the solution to such an extent that the flavor will be
impaired.

65

Filling. — Pack halves of pears closely into cans in
•overlapping layers, filling to within one-fourth inch
of the top of the can. Add boiling sirup to fill the
cans completely. Use a light or medium sirup made
according to proportions given in table 9-

Exhausting. — Exhaust pears to a center-can temper-
ature of 160° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately after removal from
exhaust box. Do not permit cans to cool before
processing.

Processing. — Process pears in boiling water (212°
F.), as follows:

Size of can: Minutes

No. 2 20

No. iy2 30

No. 3 30

No. 10 40

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed,
cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F. This
leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and to
prevent rusting. When the cans are removed from
the cooling water they should be tilted, to drain off
excess water, and then stacked in a well-ventilated
place until cold. Do not put cans into cartons until
cold and dry.

Pineapple

Container. — Use plain cans.

Quality of -produce. — Pineapple should be fully ma-
tured when canned. Fruit that is too green will be
lacking in flavor. Do not allow fruit to become over-
ripe as fermentation rapidly sets in and makes the
fruit unsuitable for canning.

Preparation. — Wash, pare, remove the eyes, and cut
out the hard woody core. Cut the pineapple in about
}o-inch slices or into chunks.

Filling. — Pack the pineapple into the cans to within
one-fourth inch of the top and completely fill the
cans with boiling sirup. Use a light or medium sirup
made according to proportions given in table 9. The
juice which drains from the fruit during preparation
may be used in making the sirup.

Exhausting. — Exhaust to a center-can temperature
of 170° to 180° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately after removal from
the exhaust box. Do not permit cans to cool before
processing.

Processing. — Process pineapple in boiling water
(212° F.), as follows:

Size of can: Minutes

No. 2 20

No. V/2 25

No. 3 25

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed,
cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F. This
leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and to
prevent rusting. When the cans are removed from
the cooling water they should be tilted, to drain off
excess water, and then stacked in a well-ventilated
place until cold. Do not put cans into cartons until
cold and dry.

PI

urns

Container. — Use R-enamel cans.

Quality of produce. — Use fruit that is ripe but firm.
Plums for canning should not be as ripe as for eating
fresh since ripe fruit will become mushy in processing.
Fruit that is too green will be sour and lacking in
flavor. Soft fruit may be used for plum butter.

Preparation. — Sort plums, removing any defective
fruit. Wash thoroughly to remove dust and spray
residue. Plums may be pricked with a fork or other
sharp instrument before packing to prevent their
bursting in processing.

Filling. — Pack the plums as closely as can be done
without crushing the fruit. Fill to within three-
eighths inch of the top of cans. Add boiling sirup to
fill the cans completely. Use a medium or heavy
sirup made according to proportions given in table 9.

Exhausting. — Exhaust plums to a center-can tem-
perature of 180° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately after removal from
the exhaust box. Do not permit cans to cool before
processing.

Processing. — Process plums in boiling water (212°
F.), as follows:

Size of can: Minutes

No. 2 15

No. 2^ 20

No. 3 20

No. 10 35

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed,
cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F. This
leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and to
prevent rusting. When the cans are removed from
the cooling water, they should be tilted, to drain off
excess water and then stacked in a well-ventilated
place until cold. Do not put cans into cartons until
cold and dry.

Sauerkraut

Quality of produce. — Use varieties of cabbage that
have been found satisfactory for making kraut and
that are resistant to yellows or other disease. Late
summer or fall cabbage usually is best for kraut.
Cabbage heads should be solid, not less than 2 pounds
in weight, and free from decay, discoloration, or
damage from freezing.

Preparation. — Trim heads of cabbage to remove
defective leaves or any bruised spots. Remove the
outer green leaves. Wash heads thoroughly and
drain well. The cabbage should be cored before
shedding. Slaw cutters or hand-operated shredding
machines may be used. In either instance the cutting
knives should be kept very sharp and properly set.
Shreds should be cut one thirty-second inch in thick-
ness. Long shreds give the sauerkraut the most
desirable appearance after curing. The length of the
shreds depends upon the size of the cabbage and the
way in which the heads are fed into the machine.

Tanks or barrels made of fir, cypress, or spruce are
used for curing kraut. Other kinds of wood or con-
crete are not desirable for this use. Small amounts
may be cured in stone jars. Care should be taken to

66

see that wooden tanks or barrels are watertight, as
spoilage occurs when there is leakage of brine. They
should be kept filled with clean water for a few days
before using. The interior of wooden containers may
be coated with waterproof material if desired.

The cut cabbage is placed in the container and salt
is added at the rate of 2 to 1){ pounds per hundred
pounds of cabbage. Less than 2 percent salt may cause
kraut to soften and more than 2.5 percent may give a
pink color to the fermented kraut. Spread the cabbage
in thin layers and scatter salt over it in alternate lay-
ers, mixing enough to give an even distribution of salt
through the cabbage. Uneven distribution of salt may
cause a soft, spotted, or pink product. A good-grade
canning salt that is fine-grained and free from lumps
should be used. The cabbage should be packed firmly
into the containers by using pressure to pack it down
closely, in filling, but taking care not to break the
cabbage shreds. A large hardwood masher is satis-
factory for tamping. Sufficient brine is formed for
curing and packing as the salt draws juice from the
cabbage. After the container is filled, it is covered
with a clean cloth and a clean wooden cover that is
made in sections for convenience in handling. The
cover is weighted down to bring the brine about 1
inch over the surface of the cabbage. Clean, hard
stones are preferable for weights but clean bricks may
be used, with only enough pressure to keep the brine
at the desired level.

The temperature best for the fermentation of cab-
bage is about 65° F. This gives slower curing but a
better flavor than does a higher temperature. A tem-
perature that is too low will cause darkening of the
kraut during fermentation. About 3 to 4 weeks are
necessary for complete curing. Kraut that has been
fermented rapidly will be lighter in color than that
which is fermented slowly. The scum which forms
during fermentation should be removed once or twice
a week. Fermentation is completed when the cabbage
develops a translucent appearance and the bubbles
cease to rise at the sides of the container. When fer-
mentation is completed the kraut should be removed
from the container and canned. If kraut is left in the
container after fermentation is completed it darkens
and may acquire an off flavor. Any discolored kraut
that may be at the top of the container should be
discarded.

Preparation for canning. — Heat kraut in its juice or in
2-percent brine (approximately 3 ounces of salt to
1 gallon of water) to 160° F. before packing into cans.
Turn kraut continually with long forks or paddles to
assure even heating. Overheating causes kraut to
darken.

Type of container.- — Use R-enamel or plain cans.

Filling. — Fill kraut into cans to within one-fourth
inch of top. Fill cans completely with a 2-percent
brine that has been heated to boiling point.

Exhausting. — Exhaust, if necessary, to bring the
center-can temperature up to 150° to 160° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans and place at once in open-
process tanks. Do not permit cans to cool before
processing.

Processing. — Process kraut in boiling water (212° F.),
as follows :

Size of can : Minutes

No. 2 15

No. 2>72 20

No. 3 20

No. 10 : 30

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed,
cool cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F. This leaves
enough heat in the cans to dry them and to prevent
rusting. When the cans are removed from the cooling
water they should be tilted, to drain off excess water,
and then stacked in a well-ventilated place until cold.
Do not stack cans or place them into cartons until
cold and dry.

Tomatoes

Container. — Use plain cans.

Quality of produce. — Tomatoes for canning should be
fully ripe but firm. Vine-ripened tomatoes give the
best flavor and color. Smooth, regular shapes are
more easily prepared and losses during preparation are
lower than for those of irregular shapes. Tomatoes
should be handled in containers that give protection
from crushing. Broken, moldy, or diseased tomatoes
contaminate the hampers and add danger of spoilage in
canning.

Preparation. — Sort tomatoes and remove those that
are green, overripe, moldy, wormy, sunburned, or
otherwise defective. Wash carefully, changing water
often enough to insure thorough removal of dirt and
spray residue.

Scalding. — Place clean tomatoes in blanching basket
and dip them into boiling water (212° F.) for )i to 1
minute, according to the ripeness of the tomatoes.
Water under boiling temperature will cook tomatoes
rather than loosen the skins. Dip the tomatoes into
cold water, to stop the cooking, and to crack the
skins in order to make peeling easier.

Peeling. — The use of a tomato knife will expedite
peeling. Remove the core first. The core hole should
be as small as possible, yet all the core must be
removed. This is important as portions of the core
left in the tomato may retard the heat penetration and
result in spoilage. To avoid loss of juice when peeling
tomatoes take care not to cut the seed cells when
removing the core or tear them in the subsequent
peeling. Skins may be easily slipped off by twisting
the tomato in the hand after loosening the skin near
the core hole with the knife. Remove green or sun-
burned spots.

Filling. — Pack whole tomatoes 4 into cans, pressing
them close to give a well-filled can. Fill cans com-
pletely. Do not add any water to tomatoes. Add

4 The addition of calcium chloride (CaCl2) to tomatoes at the time
the cans are filled has been found to be a satisfactory method of re-
taining firmness in the canned product. Salt tablets are commer-
cially available containing the concentration of calcium chloride
recommended by the Food and Drug Administration (72, p. 48).
One 6-grain calcium chloride tablet is placed in each No. 2 can
before filling it with tomatoes. The disadvantage of these tablets
is their tendency to dissolve when exposed in the humid air of the
cannery. They must be kept in moistureproof containers and
removed only as needed for immediate use.

67

salt, using % teaspoonful to each No. 2 can and 1
teaspoonful to each No. 3 can of tomatoes. Salt
tablets may be used as follows:

Size of can: Grains

No. 2 25 to 35

No. iy2 35 to 45

No. 3 45 to 60

No. 10 150 to 200

Exhausting. — Exhaust tomatoes to a center-can
temperature of 140° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately after removal from
exhaust box. Do not permit cans to cool before
processing.

Processing. — Process tomatoes in boiling water
(212° F.), as follows :

Water-cooled Air-cooled

Size of can: Minutes Minutes

No. 2 45 35

No. !}{ 55 45

No. 3 55 45

No. 10 90 70

Water cooling. — Immediately after processing is com-
pleted place the basket of cans in cooling tank filled
with cold, clean water. Water should be admitted to
the tank continually to cool the cans as rapidly as
possible to 100° F. This leaves enough heat in the
cans to dry them and to prevent rusting. When the
cans are removed from the cooling water they should
be tilted, to drain off excess water, and then stacked
in a well-ventilated place until cold. Do not put
cans into cartons until cold and dry.

Air cooling. — Remove the cans from the retort basket
and place them in a cool room where there is good
ventilation. Cans may be placed on the floor or on a
table. Leave sufficient space between cans to permit
good circulation of air. Do not stack hot cans. Do
not put cans into cartons until cold and dry.

Tomato juice

Container. — Use plain cans.

Quality of produce. — Tomatoes for juice should be
fully ripe and sound. Vine-ripened tomatoes give the
best flavor and color and may be left on the vines for
a day or two longer than those used for canning.
However, tomatoes that are overripe give a thin juice
that is lacking in flavor. Imperfectly shaped tomatoes
that do not give an attractive product when canned
whole may be used for making juice. Broken, dis-
eased, or inferior tomatoes should not be used since
the flavor of mold or other spoilage is carried entirely
through the tomatoes. The quality of the juice de-
pends on the quality of the tomatoes used.

Preparation. — Sort tomatoes to remove any that are
green, sunburned, diseased, or otherwise defective.
Wash carefully, changing the water often enough to
thoroughly remove any dirt and spray residue.

Preheating. — Preheating of tomatoes before extrac-
tion of juice gives a better color, flavor, and consist-
ency to the canned product. There is less separation
in the canned juice when tomatoes are preheated.
Best results are obtained if the tomatoes are heated
slowly to 160° to 170° F. Press the tomatoes through

a sieve to separate the skins and seeds from the juice,
being careful to avoid inclusion of air as this will
cause loss of color and vitamins. A cone-shaped sieve
is preferable because it allows the least air to be incor-
porated in the pulp. Where large quantities are being
handled a pulper will expedite the pulping process.
The pulper screen should be of 0.023-inch size. The
injection of steam into the pulper during the operation
will help to keep the air out of the pulp. Heat juice
to 190° to 200° F. Do not stir juice as this will
incorporate air in the product.

Filling. — Fill tomato juice into cans as soon as it
has reached the desired temperature. Fill cans full.
Add % teaspoonful of salt to each No. 2 can and 1 tea-
spoonful to each No. 3 can of juice. Salt tablets may
be used, as follows:

Size of can: Orains

No. 2 50 to 60

No. iy2 60 to 75

No. 3 75 to 90

Exhausting. — It is not necessary to exhaust tomato
juice if cans are sealed at a temperature of 190° F.

Processing. — Process tomato juice in boiling water
(212° F.), as follows:

Water-cooled Air-cooled

Size of can: Minutes Minutes

No. 2 30 20

No. 2^ 35 25

No. 3 35 25

Water cooling. — Immediately after processing is com-
pleted place the basket of cans in cooling tank filled
with cold, clean water. Water should be admitted to
the tank continually to cool the cans as rapidly as
possible to 100° F. This leaves enough heat in the
cans to dry them and to prevent rusting. When the
cans are removed from the cooling water they should
be tilted, to drain off excess water, and then stacked
in a -well-ventilated place until cold. Do not put cans
into cartons until cold and dry.

Air cooling. — Remove the cans from the retort basket
and place them in a cool room where there is good
ventilation. Cans may be placed on the floor or on a
table. Leave sufficient space between cans to permit
good circulation of air. Do not stack hot cans. Do
not put cans into cartons until cold and dry.

Canning nonacid vegetables

Nonacid vegetables require processing in a steam-
pressure retort or canner at temperatures of 240° and
252° F. If such equipment is not available, these
vegetables should not be canned but be preserved by
some other method, such as drying, brining, or
freezing. Salt is added to nonacid vegetables to take
away the raw vegetable flavor, thus making them
more palatable. Salt may be made up into a brine
solution or used in tablet form.

Brine. — Care should be taken in making up the
brine, as the finest product can be ruined if clean salt
water is not used. Hard water or that containing
high amounts of iron should not be used without
preheating, settling, and filtering. A 2-percent brine

68

Table 10. — Time and temperature for processing fruits, tomatoes, and other acid foods

Produce

Apple butter

Apples in sirup

Applesauce

Apricots

Berries

Cherries, sour

Cherries, sweet

Peaches

Pears

Pineapple

Plums

Sauerkraut

Tomatoes (water-cooled)

Tomatoes (air-cooled)

Tomato juice (water-cooled) .
Tomato juice (air-cooled) —

Fruit juices.
Grapefruit. .

Type of can

Plain _

.do.
.do_
.do.

R-enameL
do...

Plain

do__.

do

___do

R-enamel

R-enamel or plain.

Plain

do

do

do

Recom-
mended
center-can
closing
temper-
ature

F.
190
190
190
160
170
170
170
160
160
180
180
160
140
•140
190
190

Time to process tn boiling water (212° F.)
at sea level '

Size of can

No. 2

Minutes
10
10
10
25
15
15
15
25
20
20
15
15
45
35
30
20

No. IVi

No. 3

Minutes

Minutes

10

10

10

10

15

15

35

35

20

20

20

20

20

20

35

35

30

30

25

25

20

20

20

20

55

55

45

45

35

35

25

25

Time to process in water at 180° F.

R-enameL
Plain

170
160

20
10

20

20

Nil in

Minutes
10
10
20
40
25
30
30
45
40

"35
30
90
70

1 When using the boiling water-bath process, add 1 minute for each 1,000 feet above sea level when the processing time is 20 minutes or less, and 2 minutes
for each 1,000 feet when the processing time is longer than 20 minutes.

is satisfactory for general use. It is made by adding
2 pounds of salt to 12 gallons of water. A standard
measuring cup will contain approximately 10 ounces
of running salt. Heat to boiling before using, making
sure that all salt is dissolved.

Salt tablets. — Community canneries are finding salt
tablets more convenient than brine for some products.
Products to which salt tablets may be satisfactorily
added are given in table 11.

Table 11. — Quantity of salt in tablets of various sizes used
in canning nonacid vegetables l

Size of salt tablet according to —

Produce

Size of can

No. 2

No. 2^

No. 3

No. 10 -

Asparagus cuts
Asparagus spears

Beans, green and wax

Beans, green lima

Beets

Carrots

Corn, whole-grain

Grains

60-90
60-90
50-75
50-75
50-75
50-75
50-75
60-90
50-75
50-75
50-75
50-75

Grains
100-150
100-150
75-90
75-90
75-90
75-90

Grains

150-200

Grains
450

90-100
90-100
90-100
90-100

250-300
250-300
250-300
250-300

Greens

Mixed vegetables

Okra

100-150
75-90

150-200
90-100

450

Peas _ _

75-90

90-100

250-300

Summer squash

1 The salt tablet is placed on top of the product after it is filled into the can.
Add boiling water to fill can completely.

Asparagus

Container. — Use plain cans.

Quality of produce. — Only young, tender stalks should
be used, and they should be canned as soon as possible
after harvesting, or they will become tough and bitter.
White asparagus is cut below the ground before the
stalk has been exposed to the light. Green asparagus
is cut after the stalks have grown about 9 inches above
the ground. In either kind, stalks that are deformed
or show evidence of rust should not be used. Stalks
with tight heads make the most attractive pack.

Preparation. — Break the stalks to separate the tender
portion from the tough portion. The fibrous end is
too tough for food and should be discarded. Tender
stalks to be packed whole should be cut into uniform
length about % inch less than the height of the can.
Any tender portions that are trimmed off may be cut
into }o-inch lengths and canned as asparagus cuts.
Wash thoroughly. Particular care must be used to
remove dirt and sand from tips and leaflets. Washing
is facilitated by using water at a temperature of 140° to
150° F.

Blanching.— Blanch at from 190° to 200° F. Place
asparagus in a blanching basket and submerge in the
blanching water until the asparagus has wilted suffi-
ciently to become pliable. This takes from 3 to 5
minutes depending on the size of the stalks. Place
the blanched asparagus quickly in cold water to stop
the blanching process and to cool it sufficiently so
that it may be packed immediately. Do not allow

69

the asparagus to remain in the cooling water more
than a few seconds.

Filling. — If the asparagus is to be packed whole,
sufficient stalks to fill the can should be gathered in a
bundle, with the cut ends down. The bundle should
then be worked into the mouth of the can with the
spear ends down and the can tapped on the table to
settle the stalks to the bottom. A firm pack is
desirable and will help to keep the asparagus from
breaking up in subsequent handling. Too tight a
pack should be avoided. In packing asparagus cuts
into cans, use the can as a scoop, and dip it into the
asparagus sections with one hand while pressing
them down with the other. Tap the can sharply on
the top of the table to settle the asparagus. Fill to
within one-fourth inch of the top of can. Add boiling
brine to fill the can completely or use salt tablet and
boiling water. (See instructions on brine and salt
tablets, p. 68.)

Exhausting. — Exhaust to a center-can temperature of
140° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately after removing from
the exhaust box and place at once in the retort. Do
not permit cans to cool before processing.

Processing. — Cans containing whole spears must be
placed in the retort so that the tips are down and the
spears are in a vertical position. (See explanation of
principles of heat penetration, p. 57.) If cans con-
taining spears are placed on their sides, serious under-
processing may result.

Process asparagus at 240° F., as follows:

SPEARS

Size of can: Minutes

No. i.:....- 25

No. iy2 25

CUTS

Size of can : Minutes

No. 2... 25

No. iy2 25

No. 3 26

No. 10 35

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed,
cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F. This
leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and to pre-
vent rusting. Nonacid products canned in No. 3
cans or smaller can be cooled successfully in cold
running water. No. 10 cans must be cooled under
pressure. (See instructions for pressure cooling cans,
p. 18.) When the cans are removed from the cooling
water they should be tilted, to drain off excess water,
and then stacked in a well-ventilated place until cold.
Do not put cans into cartons until cold and dry.

Beans, green and wax

Container. — Use plain cans.

Quality of produce. — Snap beans for canning should be
fresh and tender and as free as possible from strings or
fiber. When beans have become so mature that the
seed leaves the pod when cooked they should be dried
and not canned. The time and temperature given for
processing snap beans will not be adequate for over-
mature beans. Slat hampers or baskets that afford

good ventilation are best for harvesting or transport-
ing snap beans, as they may heat and become slimy if
packed in tight containers. Burlap bags should not
be used for snap beans because the rough surface of the
bean pod catches lint that is almost impossible to re-
move in washing. Snap beans should not be harvested
while the vines are wet. Beans should be canned as
soon as possible after harvesting for they become
wilted, dark, and tough if held too long in storage.

Preparation. — Snap the ends and break or cut the
beans into pieces before washing. A quick method is
to snip the stem end of the bean and at the same time
inspect it for insect injury or other defects. There is
no reason for removing the blossom end of stringless
beans. The beans may be broken quickly and almost
simultaneously with the snipping by pressing the bean
with the thumb between the index and middle fingers
of the hand holding the pod. Where it is desirable to
snip both ends this may be followed by breaking or
the beans may be cut on a cutting board by using a
sharp knife and cutting several pods at one time.
Beans are usually cut or broken into l)4-inch lengths.
After cutting or breaking is completed, wash beans
carefully to remove grit or dust.

Blanching. — Blanch beans at 190° F. Place the beans
in a blanching basket and submerge in the blanching
water. Continue the blanching only long enough for
the beans to become pliable. The time required for
blanching will vary from 1% to 3 minutes for small-
sized beans. Large sizes will require more time.
Overblanching causes beans to become soft or slimy.
Plunge blanched beans quickly into cold water to stop
the blanching process and to cool thoroughly before
packing. Move the beans around in the blanching
basket to expedite cooling. This prompt and thor-
ough cooling assists in preventing sliminess and will
help to prevent beans from matting in the can when
packed. Do not let beans remain in the cooling water
longer than is necessary.

Filling. — Using the can as a scoop, fill it with beans
by dipping it into the blanched beans with one hand,
and pressing them down into the can with the other.
Tap the cans sharply on the top of the table to settle
the beans. Fill beans into cans to within one-fourth
inch of top. Add boiling brine to fill the cans com-
pletely or use salt tablet and boiling water. (See in-
structions on brine and salt tablets, p. 68.)

Exhausting. — Exhaust to a center-can temperature of
140° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately after removing from
the exhaust box and place them at once in retort. Do
not permit cans to cool before processing.

Processing. — Process snap beans at 240° F., as
follows:

Size of can: Minutes

No. 2 20

No. iy2 25

No. 3 25

No. 10 35

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is com-
pleted, cool cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F.
This leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and
to prevent rusting. Nonacid products canned in No.

70

3 cans or smaller can be cooled successfully in cold
running water. No. 10 cans must be cooled under
pressure. (See instructions for pressure cooling of
cans, p. 18.) When the cans are removed from the
cooling water they should be tilted, to drain off excess
water, and stacked in a well-ventilated place until
cool. Do not put the cans into cartons until cold and

dry- D I-

Beans, green lima

Container. — Use C-enamel or plain cans.

Quality of produce. — Only young and tender lima
beans should be canned. Older beans should not be
canned because of the high starch content, but they
may be dried successfully. Lima beans have reached
the proper maturity for canning when the pods are
still green but the beans are easily shelled. They
should be handled in small quantities so that they may
be canned quickly.

Preparation. — Shell lima beans as soon as possible
after harvesting. Discard defective beans. Wash in
a wire basket by dipping the basket up and down in
the washing water until the beans are clean.

Blanching.— Blanch at 190° to 200° F. Place lima
beans in the blanching basket and dip into blanching
water. Smaller beans are blanched at 200° for 2% to
3 minutes. More mature beans are blanched 4 to 5
minutes at 190° to prevent bursting of the skins.

Filling. — Drain beans and fill at once to within
one-half inch of the top of cans. Fill cans com-
pletely with boiling brine or use salt tablets and boil-
ing water. (See instructions on brine and salt tablets,
p. 68.)

Exhausting. — Exhaust to a center-can temperature
of 140° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately after removal from
the exhaust box and place at once in the retort. Do
not permit cans to cool before processing.

Processing. — Process lima beans at 240° F., as
follows:

Size of can : Minutes
No. 2 35

No. iy2 40

* No. 3 40

No. 10 55

Cooling.- — Immediately after processing is com-
pleted, cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F.
This leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and
to prevent rusting. Nonacid products canned in No.
3 cans or smaller can be cooled successfully in cold
running water. No. 10 cans must be cooled under
pressure. (See instructions for pressure cooling of
cans, p. 18.) When cans are removed from the cool-
ing water they should be tilted, to drain off excess
water, and then stacked in a well-ventilated place
until cold. Do not put cans into cartons until cold
and dry.

Beets

Container. — Use R-enamel cans.

Quality of produce. — Use young tender beets for can-
ning. Beets should be canned soon after harvesting,
as storage for any length of time may result in a bitter

flavor. Those having a uniform dark red color are
more desirable for canning than those of lighter color.
Beets that have been slowed in development by dry
weather should not be canned, as they will be fibrous
and woody. Tops of young beets may be canned as
greens.

Preparation. — Leave the root and 1 inch of the leaf
stalks on the beets to prevent the bleeding of red color
during steaming. Wash the beets thoroughly. It
may be desirable to soak beets to loosen dirt before
washing. Use a vegetable brush in washing but take
care not to break the skin or root. The last washing
should show no evidence of dirt. The use of a spray
will expedite washing when large quantities are being
handled. Grade beets for uniformity in size to assure
even steaming for peeling. They are usually sorted
into three sizes, as follows: Small, less than 1 inch in
diameter; medium, 1 to 1% inches in diameter; and
large, more than 1% inches in diameter.

Steam beets at about 230° F. (6 pounds pressure) for
10 to 15 minutes, according to the size. Wire-lined
retort crates or blanching baskets may be used for
placing beets in the retort. Cool beets in cold water
immediately on removal from the retort. Do not cool
more than is necessary for handling in peeling. Prompt
handling is necessary as delay in peeling will make
the skin more difficult to remove. Slip skin off the
beets by hand. Trim off any blemishes or woody por-
tions. If the whole beet is fibrous it should be dis-
carded, as such a one would retard heat penetration
and therefore cause spoilage. Cube, quarter, or slice
large beets before filling into cans. Slices are usually
%-inch thick. Small- or medium-sized beets may be
canned whole.

Filling. — Fill beets promptly into cans to within
one-fourth inch of top. There should be no delay in
filling since beets darken rapidly after peeling or slic-
ing. Fill can completely with boiling water or brine.
(See instructions on brine and salt tablets, p. 68.)

Exhausting. — Exhaust beets to a center can tempera-
ture of 160° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately after removing from
exhaust box and place at once in retort. Do not per-
mit cans to cool before processing.

Processing. — Process beets at 240° F., as follows:

WHOLE, CUBED, OR QUARTERED

Size of can . Minutes

No. 2 30

No. V/% 30

No. 3 30

No. 10 40

SLICED

Size of can : Minutes

No. 2 30

No. V/i 30

No. 3 30

No. 10 45

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed,
cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F. This
leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and to
prevent rusting. Nonacid products canned in No. 3
cans or smaller can be cooled successfully in cold run-
ning water. No. 10 cans must be cooled under pres-
sure. (See instructions for pressure cooling of cans,
p. 18.) When the cans are removed from the cooling
water they should be tilted, to drain off excess water,
and then stacked in a well-ventilated place until cold.
Do not put cans into cartons until cold and dry.

71

Carrots

Container. — Use plain cans.

Quality of produce. — Carrots for canning should be
crisp and render. Only fully matured ones should be
used since those that are underdeveloped will lack
flavor. Any that have become fibrous or woody
because development was slowed by dry weather or
poor soil should not be canned, as such carrots would
retard heat penetration and in this \yay cause spoilage.
The best flavor and quality are obtained from carrots
that have developed rapidly.

Preparation. — Leave 1% to 2 inches of the leafstalk
at the top for holding the carrot while peeling. Soak
carrots if necessary to loosen the soil before washing.
Scrub with a stiff brush until carrots are clean. The
use of a spray will expedite washing when large quan-
tities are being handled. Use the top of the carrot for
holding while removing a thin peel from the carrot.
A knee-action peeling knife is excellent for peeling
carrots as peeling is done on both the up and the down
strokes. Remove the top when peeling is completed.
Small carrots may be canned whole. Larger carrots
may be sliced, or cut into wedges or cubes, for canning.
Wash carrots before filling into cans.

Filling. — Pack carrots into cans as closely as possible
to within one-fourth inch of top. Fill cans com-
pletely with boiling water or brine. (See instructions
on brine and salt tablets, p. 68.)

Exhausting. — Exhaust carrots to a center-can tem-
perature of 160° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately after removing
from exhaust box and place at once in retort. Do not
permit cans to cool before processing.

Processing. — If whole carrots are packed asparagus
style, the cans should be processed on end. Process
carrots at 240° F., as follows:

Size of can:
No. 2. .

No. iy-1

No. 3 - .
No. 10.

Minutes
30
30
30
45

WHOLE, WEDGES, OR CUBES

Size of can: Minutes

No. 2 30

No. 2^ 30

No. 3 30

No. 10 40

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed,
cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F. This
leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and to
prevent rusting. Nonacid products canned in No. 3
cans or smaller can be cooled successfully in cold
running water. No. 10 cans must be cooled under
pressure. (See instructions for pressure cooling of
cans, p. 18.). When the cans are removed from the
cooling water they should be tilted, to drain off excess
water, and then stacked in a well-ventilated place
until cold. Do not put cans into cartons until cold
and dry.

Corn, cream-style

Container. — Use C-enamel cans.

Quality of produce. — Maturity for canning is indicated
generally by the appearance of the silks which are
dried at the tip but green next to the husks. The best
test for maturity is to open a few ears and press the
kernels with the thumbnail. Milk from the kernels

72

should be creamy rather than watery. When the grain
is tough and the liquid is starchy, the corn is too old
for canning and should be dried, salted, or brined.
Corn must be canned promptly as there is a rapid
change of sugar to starch with an accompanying
toughening of fiber and loss of flavor after the corn is
harvested; therefore, there should be the least possible
delay between harvesting and canning and only such
a quantity as can be canned quickly should be har-
vested. Care must be used in harvesting and trans-
porting corn to the cannery to avoid heating and the
subsequent growth of bacteria that occurs readily
when corn is packed too close. Heating will lower
the quality of canned corn and may result in spoilage.

Preparation. — Husk and silk the corn, removing as
much silk as possible with the husk. A table in the
receiving area of the cannery is used for this part of
the preparation. Use a sharp knife to cut away all
wormy portions and blemishes. Discard ears that
have smut growth or other disease. Remove silk with
a medium stiff brush. Wash the corn in cold water
and remove the remaining silks and any foreign mate-
rial with a brush. Grade the corn as it is washed and
reserve the more mature ears for canning cream-style
and the others for whole-grain canning.

Cutting. — Cut the corn at the preparation table; use
sanitary practices that will avoid contamination
which occurs very readily at this time. A corn-
cutting block, such as is shown in figure 66, should
be placed in the bottom of the preparation pan to hold
the ear of corn while cutting it. In using such a block
the knife strikes against the wood rather than the
pan. Place the butt end of the ear of corn on the
point of the nail. Hold the corn ear in position and
revolve it with one hand while cutting the kernels
with the other.

To insure a product of good quality it is important
that corn be cut in a proper manner with a sharp knife.
A thin slicing knife is best for cutting corn. In cut-
ting, start the knife at the top of the ear and slice
downward with a diagonal motion using as little
pressure on the knife as possible and one motion from
the top to the bottom of the ear. Cut the slice one-
sixteenth to one-eighth inch thick. Turn the knife
over and use the back to scrape the exposed pulp,
taking care not to scrape so deep as to include any
part of the cob, as this will give an undesirable flavor
and color to the finished corn. Do not cut too many
rows at one time or it will be impossible to get a
laver as thin as desired. When cutting is finished the

SIXPENNY NAIL
EXTENDED ^"TOI

Figure 66. — Corn-cutting block.

cob should be round with all grain pockets remaining
on the cob. If is desirable, for one person to cut and
another to do the scraping, when possible, as this will
quicken the preparation and make the cutting easier.

Blending. — Blending is accomplished by constant
stirring or agitation while the corn is heating and,
at the same time, by adding brine, water, or a salt,
sugar, and water solution to secure the proper con-
sistency. Where sweet corn of proper maturity is
used a 2-percent brine or water may be used in blend-
ing. With older corn, a salt, sugar, and water solu-
tion is used. The solution should be prepared before
the corn is cut. It is made by adding approximately
1 to 1/2 ounces of sugar to 1 gallon of 2-percent brine.
The amount of sugar used will vary with the sweet-
ness of the corn. The use of too much sugar should
be avoided as it will mask the natural flavor of the
corn. Heat the sugar, salt, and water to the boiling
point and boil 5 minutes, removing any scum that
forms on top. Blending is best accomplished by the
use of a steam-jacketed kettle or an open tank that is
heated by closed steam coils. If an open steam pipe
is used for heating, a certain amount of water is added
by condensation of the steam for which allowance
must be made. Where corn is heated over direct
heat, caramelization may occur. Apply heat slowly
to avoid caramelization or scorching. Heat corn to
190° to 200° F.

Add brine, water, or solution as necessary to obtain
a consistency that is neither starchy nor pasty. Keep
stirring corn while adding liquid. Cook the corn
until it reaches the consistency of thin cream and
when dropped from a spoon or paddle will seek its
own level. The corn will thicken in processing and
cooling and should not be too thick when processing
is completed.

Filling. — Fill the corn, at 185° F. or higher, into
No. 2 cans to within one-fourth inch of the top.

Exhausting. — It is not necessary to exhaust cream-
style corn if the corn is sealed immediately after
filling. An initial temperature of 180° F. is necessary
at the time processing is started. The processing
time given will not be adequate and spoilage may
result unless this initial temperature is maintained.
(See statement on initial temperature, p. 56).

Sealing. — Seal cans as they are filled and place them
immediately in the retort. Do not permit cans to
cool before processing.

Processing. — Process No. 2 cans of cream-style corn
at 240° F. for 90 minutes. Raise the temperature on
corn slowly at the beginning of the process, as a full
force of steam at the beginning of the process throws
an intense heat on the outside of the cans and may
cause more or less sticking and scorching before cur-
rents are set up in the mass of corn. The sudden
application of intense heat produces a distinctly
darker product than when less vigorous methods are
used.

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed,
cool the cans as rapidly as possible in cold running
water to 100° F. This leaves enough heat in the
cans to dry them and to prevent rusting. When the

cans are removed from the cooling water they should
be tilted, to drain off excess water, and then stacked
in a well-ventilated place until cold. Do not put
cans into cartons until cold and dry.

Corn, whole-grain

Container. — Use C-enamel cans.

Quality of produce. — Slightly less mature corn is used
for whole-grain than for the cream-style product.
The corn may be selected by sorting during the first
stage of preparation for canning. The general stand-
ards for quality and handling after harvesting are the
same for whole-grain corn as those given for cream-
style.

Preparation. — Husk and silk the corn, removing as
much silk as possible with the husk. A table in the
receiving area of the cannery is used for this part of the
preparation. With a sharp knife, cut away all wormy
portions and blemishes. Discard ears that have smut
growth or other disease. Remove silk with a
medium stiff brush. Wash the corn in cold water
and remove the remaining silks and any foreign
material with a brush. Grade the corn as it is
washed, reserving the less mature for whole-grain
canning, and the more mature for cream-style. Pre-
cook ears of corn in boiling water 3 to 5 minutes or
until the milk in the kernels sets. Test with a fork
or other sharp implement to see when the milk has
set in the kernels.

Cutting. — Use the cutting board with a nail in the
center and set the butt end of the ear of corn on the
nail. (See fig. 66.) Cut with one hand and revolve
the ear of corn with the other. A thin sharp knife,
preferably a 6-inch slicing knife, is best for this
purpose. Do not cut too many rows at one time as
this may result in cutting too close to the cob.
Cut two-thirds of the total depth of the kernel and
use one stroke of the knife to cut from the top to the
bottom of the ear. Deep cutting will remove chaff
of cob which gives an off-flavor and darkened color.
Do not scrape the cob because the processing time
for whole-grain corn is based on the requirements for
clear brine and is shorter than the time required for
cream-style corn. After cutting, wash kernels of
corn on a screen. A screen may be made of fine-mesh
hardware cloth fastened over a small wooden box.
This will permit the chaff and small particles to go
through the mesh but retain the kernels and make
possible a clear liquor.

Filling. — Fill corn into No. 2 cans to within one-
half inch of the top. Fill cans completely with boil-
ing water or brine. (See instructions on brine and
salt tablets, p. 68.)

Exhausting. — Exhaust to a center-can temperature
of 185° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately after removing from
the exhaust box, and place at once in retort. Do not
permit cans to cool before processing.

Processing. — Process No. 2 cans of whole-grain corn
at 240° F. for 50 minutes.

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed,
cool the cans as rapidly as possible in cold running

73

water to 100° F. This leaves enough heat in the
cans to dry them and to prevent rusting. When the
cans are removed from the cooling water they should
be tilted, to drain off excess water, and then stacked
in a well-ventilated place until cold. Do not put
cans into cartons until cold and dry.

Greens

Container. — Use plain cans.

Quality of produce. — Any cultivated or wild greens
that are used fresh may be canned. Only crisp, young,
tender greens should be canned since tough stems lower
the flavor and texture and cause slow heat penetration.
In harvesting greens use slatted crates to assure good
ventilation and to prevent their heating.

Preparation. — Greens should be sorted and trimmed
before washing since they mat and become more diffi-
cult to sort when wet. Remove old, discolored, or
inferior leaves and fibrous stems. In sorting, shake off
loose sand. Greens must be washed thoroughly and
carefully to remove all soil. Use a large volume of
water and wash a small enough quantity at one time
to avoid matting. A wire rack in the bottom of the
washing tank permits sand or dirt to fall to the bottom
of the tank and makes washing easier. Several waters
are necessary for thorough cleansing of greens. Wash-
ing should be continued until the last water is clear
and there is no trace of sand in the washing tank.

Blanching. — Fill the blanch baskets one-third to
one-half full of greens. Over-filling causes matting
which retards circulation of water through the greens
and gives an uneven blanch. Move the greens back
and forth in the blanching water to aid in the removal
of gases. Blanch greens at a temperature of 190° to
200° F. for 2 to 4 minutes. Blanching is completed
when greens are pliable rather than crisp and are
shrunk enough to insure a desirable fill in the cans.
Do not continue blanching longer than is necessary as
overblanching will cause greens to be slimy or mushy.

Filling. — Drain greens for a few minutes to remove
excess water. Draining too long will cause matting
of greens and make them difficult to pack. Pack by
weight to avoid slack fill or overfill. The drained
weight specifications are as important as the recom-
mendations for time and temperature. Overfilling will
retard heat penetration and may result in spoilage.
(See statement on checking weight of can contents,
p. 55.) The recommended maximum drained weights
are given below. These weights must not be exceeded.

Size of can: Ounces

No. 2 W/i

No. iy2 21

No. 3 23

No. 10 66

The minimum drained weights necessary to avoid
slack fill are as follows :

Size of can: Ounces

No. 2 13

No. iy2 19

No. 3 21 /2

No. 10 60

After filling use a pointed stick to push through the
center and to the bottom of the filled can to loosen
the greens and to assure the distribution of the brine
throughout the product, thus aiding heat penetration.
Add boiling brine to fill the can completely, or use
boiling water and a salt tablet. (See instructions on
brine and salt tablets, p. 68.)

Exhausting. — Exhaust to a center-can temperature
of 150° to 160° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately after removing from
the exhaust box and place at once in the retort. Do
not permit cans to cool before processing.

Processing. — Process greens at 252° F., as follows:

Size of can : Minutes

No. 2 45

No. 2^ 50

No. 3 50

No. 10 l 60

1 Since blanched greens tend to become stratified horizontally in
No. 10 cans, heat penetration will be more rapid when rhese cans
are processed on their sides rather than in a vertical position. It is
strongly recommended therefore that No. 10 cans be processed in a
horizontal position.

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed
cool cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F. This
leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and prevent
rusting. Because of the high temperature at which
greens are processed, difficulty may be encountered in
the buckling of No. 3 or smaller cans and it may be
necessary to cool them under pressure. No. 10 cans
must be cooled under pressure. (See instructions for
pressure cooling of cans, p. 18.) When the cans are
removed from the cooling water they should be tilted,
to drain off excess water, and then stacked in a well-
ventilated place until cold. Do not place cans into
cartons until cold and dry.

Mixed vegetables for soup or salad

Container. — Use plain cans.

Quality of produce. — The same quality is necessary for
mixed vegetables canned for use in soups or salads as
for vegetables canned separately. Defective or over-
mature vegetables should not be canned. The follow-
ing vegetables may be canned in any combination
desired (starchy vegetables, such as potatoes or
corn, should not be added): Cut snap beans; cut
asparagus; cut celery; baby lima beans; peas; carrots.

Preparation. — Prepare each vegetable as for canning
alone, using care not to hold cut vegetables longer
than is necessary, as this will cause discoloration.
Mix vegetables in desired proportions.

Filling. — Fill vegetables into cans to within one-
fourth inch of top. Completely fill cans with boiling
brine or use salt tablet and boiling water. (See
instructions on brine and salt tablets, p. 68.)

Exhausting. — Exhaust to a center-can temperature of
150° to 160° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately after removal from
the exhaust box and place them at once in the retort.
Do not permit cans to cool before processing.

74

Processing. — Process mixed vegetables at 240° F., as
follows :

Size of can: Minutes

No. 2 35

No. !}{ 45

No. 3 45

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed,
cool the cans as rapidly as possible in cold running
water to 100° F. This leaves enough heat in the cans
to dry them and to prevent rusting. When the
cans are removed from the cooling water they should
be tilted, to drain off excess water, and then should be
stacked in a well-ventilated place until cold. Do not
put cans into cartons until cold and dry.

Okra

Container. — Use plain cans.

Quality of -produce. — Okra pods should be canned
while they are still soft. The pods should be har-
vested every 2 or 3 days so that they will be tender.
Old pods should not be canned. The pods may be
cut or broken from the stalks. Slat hampers or
baskets that afford good ventilation are best for har-
vesting and transporting okra as the pods may heat
and become slimy if packed in tight containers.

Preparation. — Wash okra pods thoroughly by plac-
ing them in a wire basket and dipping up and down
in water. Do not let okra stand in the water.
Blanch okra from 3 to 4 minutes in water at 190° F.
After blanching, the okra should be dipped into cold
water and drained immediately. Sort to remove off-
colored or damaged pods. Use a sharp knife to
remove the stem and tip ends. Stainless-steel knives
should be used since okra is very readily discolored.
Ordinary steel knives have a tendency to discolor the
pods at the freshly cut surfaces. Cut pods into
length of about three-fourths inch.

Filling. — Pack okra into No. 2 cans to within one-
fourth inch of the top as quickly as possible after
trimming. Add boiling brine to fill the can com-
pletely or use salt tablet and boiling water. (See
instructions on brine and salt tablets, p. 68.)

Exhausting. — Exhaust to a center-can temperature
of 150° to 170° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately after removing
from the exhaust box and place at once in the retort.
Do not permit the cans to cool before processing.

Processing. — Process No. 2 cans of okra at 240°
F., for 17 minutes.

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is com-
pleted, cool cans as rapidly as possible in cold running
water to approximately 100° F. This leaves enough
heat in the cans to dry them and to prevent rusting.
When the cans are removed from the cooling water
they should be tilted, to drain off excess water, and
then stacked in a well-ventilated place until cold.
Do not put cans into cartons until cold and dry.

Peas, green

Container. — Use plain cans.

Quality of produce. — Only young, tender peas should
be canned. Peas that are overmature should be dried.
Peas should be canned promptly after harvesting.

Preparation. — Shell peas by hand or with a pea
huller. Shelling is accomplished more readily when
peas are fresh and crisp. Hand shelling may be
quickened by placing peas in a blanching basket,
dipping them for a few seconds in boiling water, and
plunging them quickly into cold water. Discard
broken, ripe, or hard peas as they are shelled. After
peas have started to lose their bright color they should
not be canned because they are too mature. Do not
permit peas to stand after shelling but complete the
canning process as soon as possible to obtain the best
quality. Wash peas in a large colander or blanching
basket lined with No. 6 mesh hardware cloth. Dip
them up and down in cold water removing imperfect
peas or particles of pod that float to the top of the
water.

Blanching. — Blanch peas for 3 to 5 minutes at 190°
to 200° F. Blanching is an important step in the
canning of peas. One of the principal objectives in
blanching is to remove mucous substance and starch
from peas in order to give a clear liquor. The blanch
is followed by a quick plunge into clean, cold water.

Filling. — Fill peas into cans to within one-fourth
inch of the top immediately after cooling. Fill cans
completely with boiling water or brine. (See instruc-
tions on brine and salt tablets, p. 68.)

Exhausting. — Exhaust peas to a center-can tempera-
ture of 140° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately after removing
from the exhaust box and place at once in the retort.
Do not permit cans to cool before processing.

Processing. — Process green peas at 240° F., as follows:

Size of can : Minutes

No. 2 35

No. 2V2 40

No. 3 40

No. 10 55

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed,
cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F. This
leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and to
prevent rusting. Nonacid products canned in No. 3
cans or smaller can be cooled successfully in cold
running water. No. 10 cans must be cooled under
pressure. (See instructions for pressure cooling of
cans, p. 18.) When the cans are removed from the
cooling water they should be tilted, to drain off
excess water, and then stacked in a well-ventilated
place until cold. Do not put cans into cartons until
cold and dry.

Pumpkin and squash

Container. — Use R-enamel cans.

Quality of produce. — Pumpkin and squash for canning
should have firm, dry meat. They should be fully
ripened, and of good texture and color. Frosted
pumpkin or squash cannot be canned successfully.
In harvesting pumpkin and squash the stems should
not be detached, as breaking off the stem leaves an
exposed surface which serves as a point where rotting
or souring may occur.

Preparation. — Wash carefully to remove all soil.
Cut open and remove seeds and fiber. Discard any

75

pumpkin or squash that shows evidence of internal
rot as this will spoil the flavor of the finished product
and may result in spoilage. Cut into uniform sections
for steaming. The skin may be left on or when small
quantities are being canned the sections may be pared.
Place chunks two or three layers deep in heavily
tinned wire baskets and set them inside of crates in
the retort for steaming. Steam for 15 to 25 minutes
at 220° F. or until soft. Steaming of small lots may
be accomplished in the same manner in a pressure
canner. In order to get a dry pack, leave the vent on
the cover of the retort or pressure canner open, and
steam the product for a longer period of time. This
will cause some evaporation from the product. When
the steaming is completed open wide the retort or
pressure canner as quickly as possible, leaving the
crate in place for a short time so that evaporation
will produce a dry product. Put through a sieve to
produce a pulp and drain off any excess liquid. Handle
the pulp as hot as possible. To evaporate the product
further, place pulp in a steam-jacketed kettle and
heat to 200° to 212° F.

Filling. — Fill cans as quickly as possible to within
one-eighth inch of the top.

Exhausting.- — If the pulp is filled promptly into cans,
an exhaust will not be necessary. However, it is
important that a center-can temperature 5° higher
than the initial temperature be maintained. The
initial temperature is an essential part in the process-
ing of pumpkin and squash. It is desirable that the
initial temperature be 180° F. and essential that it
shall not drop below 160°. (See statement on initial
temperature, p. 56.)

Sealing. — Seal the cans and place at once in the re-
tort. Do not permit cans to cool before processing.

Processing. — Process pumpkin and squash at 240° F.,
as follows (if the initial temperature falls below 180°
F., process for the time given for the initial tempera-
ture of 160°):

180° F. 160° F.
initial initial
tempera- tempera-
ture ture

Size of can: Minutes Minutes

No. 2 70 80

No. iy2 95 105

No. 3 100 110

No. 10 190 210

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed
cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F. This
leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and to
prevent rusting. Nonacid products canned in No. 3
cans or smaller ones can be cooled successfully in cold
running water. No. 10 cans must be cooled under
pressure. (See instructions for pressure cooling of
cans, p. 18.) When the cans are removed from the
cooling water they should be tilted, to drain off
excess water, and then stacked in a well-ventilated
place until cold. Do not put cans into cartons until
cold and dry.

Su

mmer squas

h

Container. — Use plain cans.

Quality of produce. — Summer squash, such as crook-
neck, scallop, straightneck, and zucchini, may be
canned. Only young, tender squash should be used.
Do not use any squash that has begun to mature.5

Preparation. — Wash thoroughly, cut off stems, and
cut into %- to /4-inch slices.

Filling. — Pack loosely into No. 2 cans to fill them.
There should be as little delay as possible between
slicing and filling. Fill cans completely with boiling
brine or use salt tablet and boiling water. (See
instructions on brine and salt tablets, p. 68.)

Exhausting. — Exhaust to a center-can temperature
of 150° to 160° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately after removing from
exhaust box and place at once in the retort. Do not
permit cans to cool before processing.

Processing. — Process summer squash at 240° F., as
follows :

Size of can:
No. 2..

Minutes
.... 40

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed,
cool the cans as rapidly as possible in cold running
water to 100° F. This leaves enough heat in the cans
to dry them and to prevent rusting. When the cans
are removed from the cooling water they should be
tilted, to drain off excess water, and then stacked in a
well-ventilated place until cold. Do not put cans into
cartons until cold and dry.

Sweetpctatoes in sirup

Container. — Use plain cans.

Quality of produce. — Freshly dug sweetpotatoes are
best for canning. However, stored sweetpotatoes that
have been cured may be canned. In the latter case the
sweetpotatoes may be somewhat softer, owing to the
higher sugar content of the cured product. Care
should be taken not to bruise the sweetpotatoes as
soft rot develops quickly. Sweetpotatoes harvested
from vines that have been frosted should not be
canned. It is preferable to use small sweetpotatoes
for canning in sirup as they may be packed whole.
If larger sweetpotatoes are used, cut them in uniform
slices lengthwise of the sweetpotato.

Preparation. — Wash the sweetpotatoes thoroughly in
cold water to remove all dirt. To peel sweetpotatoes
that are to be packed in sirup, it is best to use the lye
method of peeling as they may be packed without pre-
cooking. This will prevent the possibility of over-
filling the can and permit good circulation of the sirup
throughout the pack. The shorter processing time
given for this type of pack is possible only when a
canning medium is used. To lye-peel sweetpotatoes,
place them in boiling lye solution which has been
made by adding 9}i pounds of granulated lye (caustic
soda) to 10 gallons of water. Bring the solution to a

6 For mature squash see Pumpkin and Squash, p. 75.

76

boil and immerse the sweetpotatoes in it for 5 minutes,
counting from the time the solution returns to a boil.
When the lye solution becomes thickened from use,
discard it and make a fresh supply. Remove sweet-
potatoes from the lye solution and place them in a
tank of cold, clear water. Stir the sweetpotatoes
around with a wooden paddle until the skins are re-
moved. Change the water and wash the sweetpota-
toes thoroughly or turn a hose on them to remove all
the lye solution. By hand, trim the sweetpotatoes
for defective parts and grade them according to size.
Hold the sweetpotatoes in cold water during the time
required for trimming. As they are trimmed, drop
them into a 2-percent salt solution to prevent dis-
coloration.

When ready to pack, wash off the salt solution by
dipping the sweetpotatoes into clear, cold water.
Sweetpotatoes are then packed without further treat-
ment. If it is not practical to lye-peel sweetpotatoes,
they may be precooked in a retort at 240° F., for 6 to
10 minutes for small sweetpotatoes, 10 to 18 minutes
for medium-sized ones, and up to 25 minutes for large
ones. Care must be taken not to permit the sweet-
potatoes to come in contact with the retort crate as
this will discolor them. Use aluminum pans or
galvanized-metal baskets or line the retort crate with
wooden slats. Sweetpotatoes precooked for peeling
may be permitted to cool slightly for ease in handling.
They should be peeled and packed rapidly to prevent
discoloration. Precooked sweetpotatoes will be soft,
and care must be taken not to pack them too tightly
into cans.

Filling. — Pack sweetpotatoes into cans to within
one-fourth inch of the top. It is best to pack whole
small sweetpotatoes separate from the sliced ones. Do
not pack them too closely as this will prevent heat
penetration and the process given will not be adequate.
Add boiling lightweight sirup made according to in-
structions given in table 9, to fill the can completely.
Do not use a heavier sirup as it will mask the natural
flavor of the sweetpotatoes.

Exhausting. — Exhaust sweetpotatoes to 175° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans as soon as the exhaust tempera-
ture is reached. Do not permit cans to cool before
processing.

Processing. — Process sweetpotatoes at 240° F., as
follows :

Size of can : Minutes

No. 2 45

No. iy2 50

No. 3 50

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed
cool the cans as rapidly as possible in cold running
water to 100° F. This leaves enough heat in the cans
to dry them and to prevent rusting. When the cans
are removed from the cooling water they should be
tilted, to drain off excess water, and then stacked in a
well-ventilated place until cold. Do not put cans into
cartons until cold and dry.

Sweetpotatoes, solid pack

Container. — Use plain cans.

Quality of produce. — Freshly dug sweetpotatoes are
best for canning. However, stored sweetpotatoes
that have been cured may be canned. In the latter
case the sweetpotatoes may be somewhat softer owing
to the higher sugar content of the cured product.
Care should be taken not to bruise the sweetpotatoes
as soft rot develops quickly. Sweetpotatoes har-
vested from vines that have been frosted should not be
canned.

Preparation. — Soak the sweetpotatoes in cold water
if necessary to remove clinging soil. Scrub with
brush or wash them with a spray of water to remove
all dirt. Sweetpotatoes may be precooked and peeled
or lye-peeled and precooked for packing. Grade for
size to make precooking more uniform, setting small
sweetpotatoes aside for sirup pack.

Precooking for peeling. — To precook sweetpotatoes for
peeling, place them in slatted boxes or in the retort
crate in layers of not more than 6 inches deep. If the
retort crates are used they should be lined with
wooden slats to prevent the sweetpotatoes from
coming in direct contact with the crate which will
cause discoloration. The steam is turned into the
retort slowly and the temperature brought up to 240°
F. Gradual heating is desirable to avoid bursting
the skins. Hold retort at this temperature for 6 to 10
minutes for small sweetpotatoes if they are to be used
for solid pack, 10 to 18 minutes for medium-sized
ones, and up to 25 minutes for large ones. Moist
varieties will require less time for precooking. At the
end of the heating period, open the retort promptly
so that the steam may be evaporated rapidly. This
will aid in getting a dry product in the can. The
sweetpotatoes are then peeled as quickly as possible to
conserve the heat. Canvas gloves will aid in handling
the sweetpotatoes more rapidly.

Lye peeling and steaming. — For lye-peeling sweet-
potatoes use a 10-percent solution made by adding 9)a
pounds of lye to 10 gallons of water. Bring solution
to a boil and immerse sweetpotatoes in it for 5 minutes
counting from the time the solution returns to a boil.
When the lye solution becomes thickened from use,
discard it and make a fresh supply. Remove the
sweetpotatoes from the lye solution and place them in
a tank of cold, clear water. Stir the sweetpotatoes
around with a wooden paddle until the skins are
removed. Change the water and wash them again
thoroughly or turn hose on them to remove all the
lye solution. By hand, trim the sweetpotatoes for
defective parts and grade them according to size for
uniform steaming. Hold them in cold water during
the time required for trimming. As they are trimmed,
drop them into a 2-percent salt solution to prevent
discoloration. When they are ready to steam, wash
off the salt solution by dipping them into clear cold
water. Steam the sweetpotatoes in a retort at 240° F.
Small sweetpotatoes should be held at this temperature

77

for 6 to 10 minutes, medium-sized ones for 10 to 18
minutes, and large ones up to 25 minutes.

Filling. — Pack sweetpotatoes as hot as possible to
avoid discoloration and to shorten the time for ex-
hausting. Mash them into cans to fill cans completely.
Do not leave air spaces, as they cause discoloration.

Exhausting. — Sweetpotatoes should be exhausted to
a center-can temperature 5° higher than the initial
temperature at which processing begins in order to
allow for cooling during sealing. (See statement on
initial temperature, p. 56.)

Sealing. — Seal cans as soon as they are exhausted.
Do not permit cans to cool before processing.

Processing. — The length of processing time depends
on the initial temperature — the higher the initial

temperature, the shorter the process needed. Process
sweetpotatoes at 240° F., as follows:

Having an initial temperature of —

80° F. 120° F. 150° F. ISO0 F.

Size of can : Min utes Min utes Min utes Min utes

No. 2 110 105 95 85

No. iy2 130 120 110 95

No. 3 135 125 115 100

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed
cool the cans as rapidly as possible in cold running
water to 100° F. This leaves enough heat in the cans
to dry them and to prevent rusting. When the cans
are removed from the cold water they should be tilted,
to drain off excess water, and then stacked in a well-
ventilated place until cold. Do not put cans into
cartons until cold and dry.

Table 12. — Time and temperature for processing nonacid vegetables

Produce

Asparagus, cuts

Asparagus, spears

Beans, green and wax

Beans, green lima

Beets, sliced

Beets, whole, cubed, or quartered.

Carrots, sliced

Carrots, whole, wedges, cubes

Corn, cream-style

Corn, whole-grain

Mixed vegetables

Okra

Peas, green

Pumpkin-squash

Pumpkin-squash

Summer squash

Sweetpotatoes, in sirup

Sweetpotatoes, solid pack

Sweetpotatoes, solid pack

Sweetpotatoes, solid pack

Sweetpotatoes, solid pack

Greens Plain

Type of can

Plain.

.do.

do

C-enamel or plain.

R-enamel

do

Plain

do.._

C-enamel.
do...

Plain

do...

do.._

R-enamel.
do...

Plain

do—

_do.
.do.
.do.
.do.

Recom-
mended
center can
closing tem-
perature

F.
140
140
140
140
160
160
160
160
185
185
150
150
140
185
165
150
175
85
125
155
185

150

Initial
tempera-
ture

°F.

180

180
160

80
120
150
180

Time to process at 240° F. (10.3 lbs.
pressure) at sea level '

No. 2

cans

Min utes
25
25
20
35
30
30
30
30
90
50
35
17
35
70
80
40
45
110
105
95
85

No. 2¥,
cans

Minutes
25
25
25
40
30
30
30
30

No. 3

cans

No. 10
cans

Minutes \Minutes

26 ! 35

45

40

95

105

50
130
120
110

95

25
40
30
30
30
30

45

40
100
110

50
135
125
115
100

35
55
45
40
45
40

55
190
210

Time to process at 252° F. C16.2 lbs.
pressure) at sea level '

45

50

50

60

i The times given here for processing under pressure apply only to places at sea level. When produce is canned under pressure at altitudes higher than sea
level, the pressure must be increased approximately Vi pound for each 1,000 feet. See table S for making altitude adjustment.

Canning meat

Many farm families can beef, chicken, and other
home-produced meats to help spread supplies through-
out the year. All meats for canning should be from
healthy animals of good quality, slaughtered and
handled in a strictly sanitary manner (4), Q-4), (i5).
After the animal is slaughtered, the meat should be
chilled as rapidly as possible and canned promptly.
If necessary to hold for 2 or 3 days, keep at 40° F. or
lower. Avoid freezing meat, if possible. If meat does
freeze, keep it frozen until canning time as meat

thawed after freezing is highly perishable. It is not
necessary to age meat to be used for canning.

Community canning centers are ideal for getting
the meat-canning job done in a minimum of time and
according to safe methods as both space and suitable
equipment are available.

Meats are nonacid products and must be processed
at a sufficiently high temperature (240° F.) and held
there long enough to make sure of killing the bacteria
that cause dangerous spoilage. This can be accom-
plished only by processing meats under pressure in a
retort or pressure canner. If meats are not properly

78

processed they may spoil or lead to serious food
poisoning. Follow carefully the directions given in
order to assure a safe, good-quality product.

Beef, veal, mutton, lamb, pork, and the meat of
large game animals are canned by the same method.
Chicken, duck, turkey, and other poultry, and small
game animals, such as rabbit, are canned alike.

Mixtures, such as chili con carne, hash, and stews
with vegetables, although successfully canned by
commercial canners, are not recommended for com-
munity canning. It is safer to can each food separately
and combine them when ready to serve.

Table 13 will be helpful in estimating the number
of cans that will be needed for processing a given
quantity of fresh meat.

Table 13. — Approximate quantities of meat required to fill
specified can sizes

Product

Quantity required to fill a —

No. 2 can

No. 2H can

No. 3 can

Beef, round (untrimmed) _
Beef, rump (untrimmed) .
Chicken (dressed, un-
drawn) to be canned
with bone

Pounds
1% to 2

3 to 3J4

2% to 3/3

4% to 4%
3 to 3/3

Pounds

2y2 to 3

4% to 4%

3% to 4%

6 to 6%
4Vi to 4%

Pounds
3 to 3H
5 to 5H

4% to 5}i

Chicken (dressed, un-
drawn) to be canned
without bone

7 to 8

Pork loin (untrimmed)

5 to 5/2

Roasts, steaks, and stew meat

Container. — Use plain cans.

Boning and cutting. — Cut meat from the bone (i3).
Cut out the tendons and blood clots. Trim off most
of the fat. Too much fat may cause spoilage as it
retards heat penetration. The large, tender pieces are
canned as roasts, steaks, or chops. The tougher cuts
are canned as stew meat or ground meat. The bones
are used to make broth to pour over the meat to fill
the cans, or to make soup stock. Cut roasts to fit the
can with the grain of the meat running lengthwise.
Steaks and chops are cut as for serving fresh and
packed in layers to fit the can. The smaller pieces of
stew meat are handled and processed in the same
manner as the larger pieces.

Precooking and packing. — Roasts, steaks, and stews
may be precooked and packed hot or packed raw and
exhausted in the can. Precooking or exhausting of
meat before processing shrinks the meat sufficiently
to assure a full pack, expels the air from the produce
to get the proper vacuum in the can, and aids heat
penetration so that produce is safe when processed
for the period of time given.

If meat is to be packed hot, precook it as follows :

Place pieces of meat loosely in a large shallow pan
that will fit inside the retort. Add a small amount
of water to keep the meat from sticking. The pan
should be deep enough to retain the juices that will

come from the meat during heating. Place hardwood
sticks across the top of the pan to permit the stacking
of three or four pans in the retort. Bring the retort
up slowly to 240° F. For large pieces of meat hold
at this temperature for 25 to 30 minutes or until the
meat has a pink, rather than red, color at the center.
Stew meat heated in retorts will require but 15 to 20
minutes at 240° F. Stew meat may also be heated in
a steam-jacketed kettle. Add sufficient water to cover
the meat partially and allow it to simmer from 25 to
40 minutes or until the pieces of meat are thoroughly
heated through and are only slightly pink in the
center. Stir occasionally so that the meat will heat
evenly. Pack hot pieces into cans as closely as possi-
ble to within one-half inch of the tops. If salt is
desired put it into the clean cans before packing the
meat. Use level measurements of running salt or salt

tablets, as follows : Quantity of salt

Running salt Salt tablet
Size of can : Teaspoonful Grains

No. 2 y2 50-75

No. 1}{ % 75-90

No. 3 1 90-100

Fill the cans completely with boiling broth which
has been skimmed of fat. Exhaust if necessary to a
center-can temperature of 170° F. The cans should
be sealed, washed, and processed immediately.

If meat is to be packed raw, fit the pieces closely
into cans to fill them completely. If salt is desired,
put it into the clean cans before packing the meat.
Use the same quantities of salt as those given for
meat that has been precooked and packed hot. Place
the cans of raw meat in the exhaust box and heat to
a center-can temperature of 170° F. This will require
about 50 minutes. When the center-can temperature
has been reached, press the meat down into the cans
to one-half inch below the top. The liquid from the
meat may be sufficient to completely fill the cans.
If additional liquid is needed, add boiling broth which
has been made from the bones and skimmed of fat,
or add boiling water. The cans should be sealed,
washed, and processed immediately.

Sealing. — Before sealing the cans care should be
taken to remove all meat particles from the edge of
the can as they may prevent a perfect seal.

Washing. — Dip cans into a tank of boiling water to
remove grease and place at once in the retort for
processing. Do not permit cans to cool before
processing.

Processing. — Process roasts, steaks, and stew meat
at 240° F., as follows:

Size of Can: Minutes

No. 2 65

No. iy2 90

No. 3 90

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed
cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F. This
leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and to
prevent rusting. Meats canned in No. 3 cans or
smaller ones can be cooled successfully in cold, running
water. However, if buckling occurs in No. 3 cans

79

it may be necessary to cool them under pressure. (See
instructions for pressure cooling of cans, p. 18.)
When the cans are removed from the cooling water
they should be tilted, to drain off excess water, and
then stacked in a well-ventilated place until cold.
Do not put cans into cartons until cold and dry.

Ground meat

Container. — Use plain cans.

Preparation. — Small pieces of meat from the less-
tender cuts may be ground. Only fresh, clean meat,
trimmed of most of its fat should be used. Too
much fat will retard heat penetration and may result
in spoilage. Keep meat cold and handle as rapidly
as possible. Never use meat of doubtful freshness as
it may spoil the whole batch. If desired, add 1 level
teaspoonful of salt to 1 pound of ground meat. Mix
it well through the meat before grinding. When
making pork sausage, any tested recipe may be used,
but do not add sage as it is likely to give the canned
sausage a bitter flavor. Use other spices sparingly
because flavors change with processing and storing.
Grind the meat, using the one-fourth- or three-eighth-
inch plate of the meat grinder. Mix again to assure
an even distribution of salt and fat. Ground raw
meat may be packed solid in cans or made into cakes or
links and precooked before filling into the cans.

Solid pack. — Pack raw ground meat solidly into cans
and level with the top. Place in the exhaust box
and heat to a center-can temperature of 170° F. This
will require about 75 minutes. When the center-can
temperature has been reached press the meat down into
cans, about one-half inch below the top. The liquid
from the meat should be sufficient to completely
fill the can. If more liquid is needed, add boiling
broth which has been made from the bones and has
been skimmed of fat, or add boiling water to fill the
cans to the top. Seal promptly, wash cans, and
process immediately.

Cakes or links. — Ground meats made into cakes or
links are packed in broth or water. This method of
packing aids heat penetration and makes the time of
processing shorter. Pork sausage is usually packed in
this manner. Make cakes thin and uniform and of a
size to fit the can. Fill sausage casings and tie in
links to fit the length of the can, allowing about }i-
inch head space. Precook cakes or links in a pan over
a hot plate or in the bottom of a steam-jacketed kettle
until medium done or until the red color at the center
is almost gone. Turn cakes or links so they will heat
evenly and be slightly browned. Do not let them
burn or become too brown or crusty as this will im-
pair their flavor. Pack cakes into cans in layers to
within one-half inch of the top. Pack links on end.
Do not pack them too closely. Skim fat from drip-
pings and set aside. Do not use fat in canning. Add
water to the drippings and bring to a boil. Allow
% to 1 cup of liquid for a No. 2 can. Pour boiling
broth over cakes or links to fill the can or fill with
boiling water. Run knife down inside the can and
adjust the cakes or links slightly. This will aid in

distributing liquid. Add more liquid if necessary to
fill the can to the top. Exhaust if necessary to a
center-can temperature of 170° F. Seal cans promptlv,
wash, and process immediately.

Sealing. — Before sealing the cans, care should be
taken to remove all meat particles from the edge of the
can as they may prevent a perfect seal.

Washing. — Dip cans into a tank of boiling water to
remove grease and place in the retort for processing.
Do not permit cans to cool before processing.

Processing. — The processing time for ground meat,
solid pack, is necessarily longer than for cakes or
links packed in liquid since the solid pack tends to
slow down heat penetration. Links should be proc-
essed in a vertical position. Process ground meat at
240° F., as follows:

Cakes or
Solid pack links

Size of can: Minutes Minutes

No. 2 100 65

No. iy2 135 90

No. 3 135 90

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed
cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F. This
leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and to
prevent rusting. Meats canned in No. 3 cans or
smaller can be cooled successfully in cold running
water. However, if buckling occurs in No. 3 cans
it may be necessary to cool them under pressure.
(See instructions for pressure cooling of cans, p. 18.)
When the cans are removed from the cooling water
they should be tilted, to drain off excess water, and then
should be stacked in a well-ventilated place until
cold. Do not put cans into cartons until cold and dry.

Heart and tongue

Container. — Use plain cans.

Preparation. — Heart and tongue are packed hot for
canning. To prepare heart wash thoroughly. Re-
move thick connective tissue and cut into pieces.
Place in a steam-jacketed kettle and partially cover
the meat with water. Simmer for 25 to 40 minutes or
until the pieces of meat are thoroughly heated and
are only slightly pink in the center. To prepare
tongue, wash it thoroughly, place in steam-jacketed
kettle and cover with boiling water. Simmer about
45 minutes, or until skin can be removed, before
cutting into pieces.

Pilling. — If salt is desired, add it to the clean can
before packing the meat. Either salt tablets or
running salt may be used, as follows:

Quantity of salt
Running salt Salt tablet
Size of can: T{_aspnoi>rul Groins

No. 2 % 50 to 75

No. iy2 % 75 to 90

No. 3 1 90 to 100

Pack heart and tongue separately. Fill hot meat
into cans to within % inch of top. Completely fill
the cans with boiling broth from the heart or tongue.

80

Exhausting. — Exhaust if necessary to a center-can
temperature of 170° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately after removal from
the exhaust box, being careful not to leave any meat
particles on the rim of the can. Place at once in
retort for processing. Do not permit cans to cool
before processing.

Processing. — Process heart and tongue at 240° F.,
as follows :
Size of can: Minutes

No. 2 65

No. V/2 90

No. 3 90

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed
cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F. This
leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and to
prevent rusting. Meats canned in No. 3 cans, or
smaller, can be cooled successfully in cold running
water. However, if buckling occurs in No. 3 cans
it may be necessary to cool them under pressure.
(See instructions for pressure cooling of cans, p. 18.)
When the cans are removed from the cooling water
they should be tilted, to drain off excess water, and
then stacked in a well-ventilated place until cold.
Do not put cans into cartons until cold and dry.

Corned beef

Container. — Use plain cans.

Preparation. — Wash the corned beef and cut into
pieces suitable for packing. Remove excess fat for it
will retard heat penetration and may result in spoilage.
Cut large pieces to fit the can with the grain of the
meat running lengthwise. Place the meat in a steam-
jacketed kettle and cover with cold water. Bring to
a boil. If broth tastes very salty, drain and cover the
meat with fresh water and parboil again.

Filling. — Pack hot meat into cans to within one-
half inch of tops. Cover with boiling water to fill the
can completely.

Exhausting. — Exhaust if necessary to a center-can
temperature of 170° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately, being careful to
remove any meat particles that may be on edge of
the can.

Washing. — Dip cans into tank of boiling water to
remove grease and place at once in retort for process-
ing. Do not permit cans to cool before processing.

Processing. — Process corned beef at 240° F., as
follows :

Size of can: Minutes

No. 2 65

No. l}i 90

No. 3 90

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed
cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F. This
leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and pre-
vent rusting. Meats canned in No. 3 cans, or smaller,
can be cooled successfully in cold running water.
However, if buckling occurs in No. 3 cans it may be

necessary to cool them under pressure. (See instruc-
tions for pressure cooling of cans, p. 18.) When the
cans are removed from the cooling water they should
be tilted, to drain off excess water, and then should be
stacked in a well-ventilated place until cold. Do not
put cans into cartons until cold and dry.

Chicken

All chickens for canning should be of the best qual-
ity and should be killed and dressed in a strictly
sanitary manner. Instructions for killing and dressing
poultry are given in Farmers' Bulletin 1377, Market-
ing Poultry (9). After killing and dressing, chickens
should be chilled as rapidly as possible and canned
promptly. It is recommended that killing and dressing
of poultry be done at the canning center. If this can-
not be arranged, patrons should be advised regarding
proper methods for doing the job at home or heavy
losses from spoilage may occur. For best-flavored
canned chicken, select plump stewing hens. Young
birds are not so suitable for canning as they often lack
flavor and, since they require the same processing time
as older birds, they may cook to pieces.

Container. — Use plain cans.

Preparation. — Dry the chilled birds, singe, and wash.
Remove oil gland, head, and feet. Disjoint the bird
and remove entrails. For information on cutting up
chicken for canning see AWUU0, Home Canning of
Meat (ii). Special care should be taken not to break
the gall bladder or the meat will be bitter. Clean and
wash gizzard and remove gall bladder from liver. Do
not precook or can giblets with the meaty portions of
chicken as they will impart an off-flavor to the rest
of the meat. Livers should be canned separately.
Gizzards and hearts may be canned together. Chicken
may be packed with or without bone. In either in-
stance it may be precooked before packing or packed
raw and exhausted. Precooking or exhausting of
chicken before processing shrinks the meat sufficiently
to assure a full pack, expels the air from the product
to get the proper vacuum in the can, and aids heat
penetration so that the product is safe when processed
for the time given.

Chicken with bone. — To pack chicken with bone, saw
drumsticks off short, bone the breast, but leave bone
in other meaty pieces, such as second joints. Trim off
large lumps of fat. Set aside bony pieces, such as the
backs and wings, for making soup stock. If chicken
is to be precooked and packed hot, place the meaty
portions in a steam-jacketed kettle and cover with
hot water. Precook until the meat is medium done
and when cut shows almost no pink color at the
center of the pieces. Stir occasionally so that the
meat will heat evenly. Pack the hot chicken into
cans, placing the second joints and drumsticks so that
the skin is next to the can. Fit the breast pieces into
the center. Add smaller pieces to fill the can to with-
in one-half inch of the top. If salt is desired add it to
the clean can before packing the chicken. Use level

81

measurements of running salt, or salt tablets, as
follows :

Quantity of salt

Running salt Salt tablet

Size of can: Teaspoonful Grains

No. 2 y2 50-75

No. 2}i % 75-90

No. 3 1 90-100

Fill the cans completely with boiling broth which
has been skimmed of fat. Exhaust if necessary to a
center-can temperature of 170° F. Seal promptly,
wash cans, and process immediately.

To raw-pack chicken with bones follow these
same instructions with the following exceptions:

(1) Pack raw chicken into cans to fill them com-
pletely.

(2) Exhaust to a center-can temperature of 170° F.
(This will take about 50 minutes.)

(3) When the center-can temperature has been
reached, press the chicken down into the cans to with-
in }( inch of the top. The liquid from the chicken
should completely fill the can. If additional liquid is
needed add boiling broth which has been made from
the bony pieces and skimmed of fat, or add boiling
water. The cans should then be sealed, washed, and
processed immediately.

Chicken without bone. — Chicken canned without
bone is usually precooked to aid in removing the
meat from the bone. Place the meaty pieces of chick-
en in a steam-jacketed kettle and cover -with hot
water. Precook until the meat is medium done and a
cut shows almost no pink color at the center of the
pieces. After precooking, cut the meat off the bone
but do not remove the skin. Pack the hot, boned
chicken into cans to within one-half inch of the tops.
If salt is desired, add it to the clean can before packing
the chicken, using the same quantity as for chicken
with bone. Fill the cans completely with boiling
broth.. Exhaust if necessary to a center-can tempera-
ture of 170° F. Seal promptly, wash cans, and proc-
ess immediately.

To pack raw chicken without bone prepare it as
follows: Remove the bone from the drumsticks,
thighs, and breast. Do not remove the skin. Set
aside bones and bony pieces for soup stock. Pack
the raw, boned pieces into cans to fill them completely.
If salt is desired add it to the clean can before packing
the chicken. Use the same quantity as for chicken
with bone. Place cans in the exhaust box and heat
to a center-can temperature of 170° F. Press chicken
down into can to within )'i inch of top. The liquid
from the chicken should completely fill the can. If
additional liquid is needed add boiling broth which
has been skimmed of fat, or add boiling water. Seal,
wash, and process cans immediately.

Sealing. — Before sealing cans, care should be taken
to remove all meat particles from the edge of the can
as. they may prevent a perfect seal.

Washing. — Dip cans in a tank of boiling water to
remove grease and place in the retort for processing.
Do not permit cans to cool before processing.

Processing. — Chicken without bone must be proc-
essed longer than chicken with bone. Process
chicken at 240° F., as follows:

With-
With- out
bone bone

Min- Min-

Size of can: vies utes

No. 2 55 65

No. 2}2 75 90

No. 3 75 90

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed
cool the cans as rapidly as possible to 100° F. This
leaves enough heat in the cans to dry them and prevent
rusting. Meats canned in No. 3 cans, or smaller,
can be cooled successfully in cold running water.
However, if buckling occurs in No. 3 cans it may be
necessary to cool them under pressure. (See instruc-
tions for pressure cooling of cans, p. 18.) When the
cans are removed from the cooling water they should
be tilted, to drain off excess water, and then stacked
in a well-ventilated place until cold. Do not put
cans into cartons until cold and dry.

Chicken giblets

Container. — Use plain cans.

Preparation. — Giblets should be kept cold until
ready to can. Because of the flavor, it is best to can
livers alone. Gizzards and hearts may be canned
together. Giblets are precooked in a steam-jacketed
kettle or in a small kettle over a hot plate. Cover
them with broth made from the bony pieces or cover
with hot water. Cook the giblets until medium
done or until they have lost their raw appearance
when cut into.

Filling. — Pack giblets hot into No. 2 cans to within
one-half inch of the tops. Add salt if desired before
adding broth. Free running salt or salt tablets may
be used, as follows:

Quantity of salt

Running Salt
salt tablet

Tea-
Size of can: spoonful Grains

No. 2 y2 50-75

No. iy2 % 75-90

No. 3 .' 1 90-100

Pour boiling broth over giblets to fill the can to the
top.

Exhausting. — Exhaust if necessary to a center-can
temperature of 170° F.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately, being careful to
remove any meat particles that may be on the edge
of the can. Place cans in retort and process at once.

Processing. — Process No. 2 cans of giblets at 240° F.
for 65 minutes.

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed,
cool the cans as rapidly as possible in cold running
water to 100° F. This leaves enough heat in the
cans to dry them and to prevent rusting. When the
cans are removed from the cooling water they should
be tilted, to drain off excess water, and then stacked

82

in a well-ventilated place until cold. Do not put
cans into cartons until cold and dry.

Soup stock

Container. — Use plain cans.

Preparation. — Place bony pieces of chicken or other
meat in steam-jacketed kettle and partially cover with
water. Add a small amount of salt for flavor. Simmer
until meat is tender. Remove bones from broth and
cut off pieces of meat. Skim fat off the broth and
continue cooking to concentrate it. Before filling
broth into cans add pieces of meat which were removed
from the bone and bring to a boil.

Filling. — Stir broth as each can is filled so that meat
and sediment will be evenly distributed. Fill cans full.

Exhausting. — It will not be necessary to exhaust
soup stock filled into cans at boiling temperature.
Do not let the temperature drop below 170° F. before
sealing.

Sealing. — Seal cans immediately and place in retort.
Do not let cans cool before processing.

Processing. — Process soup stock at 240° F. , as follows :

Size of can : Minutes

No. 2 .' 20

No. iy2 25

No. 3 25

Cooling. — Immediately after processing is completed,
cool the cans as rapidly as possible in cold running
water to 100° F. This leaves enough heat in the cans
to dry them and to prevent rusting. When the cans
are removed from the cooling water they should be
tilted, to drain off excess water, and then stacked in a
well-ventilated place until cold. Do not put cans into
cartons until cold and dry.

Table 14. — Time and temperature for processing meats

Time to process at

240° F. (10.3 pounds

Recom-
mended

pressure) at sea
level >

Meats

Type of can

can clos-
ing tem-

Size of can

No. 2

No.
2H

No. 3

o p

Min-

Min-

Min-

utes

utes

utes

Chicken -with bone_ ___

Plain __

170

55

75

75

Chicken without bone__

__.do

170

65

90

90

Chicken giblets

.__do.__

___do

170
170

65

65

Corned beef

90

90

Ground meat (cakes

___do

170

65

90

90

and links) .

Ground meat (solid

___do

170

100

135

135

pack).

Heart and tongue

_._do

170

65

90

90

Roast, steak, and stew

...do

170

65

90

90

meat.

Soup stock

__.do

170

20

25

25

1 When products are canned under pressure at altitudes higher than sea
level the pressure must be increased approximately H pound for each 1,000
feet. See table 8 for making altitude adjustment

Partial list of manufacturers of canning
equipment and supplies

Batch-type exhaust boxes:

J. P. Dowell Co., McKinney, Tex.
Dixie Conner Co., P. O. 1 348, Athens, Ga.
Blanching baskets, pails, and pans:

Chisholm-Ryder Co., Inc., 4121 Highland Avenue, Niaqara

Falls, N. Y.
Food Machinery Corporation, 101 East Maple Street,

Hoopeston, III.
F. H. Langsenkamp Corporation, Harmon and South Streets,

Indianapolis 4, Ind.
A. K. Robins & Co., Inc., 1 1 1 Concord Street, Baltimore, Md.
Boilers:

Orr & Sembower, Inc., Reading, Pa.

Hamburg Boiler Works, Inc., Hamburg, Pa.

Birchfield Boiler, Inc., Tacoma 1 , Wash.

Gar Wood Industries, Inc., 7924 Riopelle Street, Detroit 11,

Mich.
Milwaukee Boiler Manufacturing Co., 1101 South Forty-first

Street, Milwaukee, Wis.
Lookout Boiler & Manufacturing Co., Road and Compress

Streets, Chattanooga, Tenn.
Eclipse Fuel Engineering Co., 705 South Main Street, Rock-
ford, III.
Athens Boiler & Machine Works, Inc., Thomas and Hoyt

Streets, Athens, Ga.
J. J. Finnigan Co., Inc., 455 Means Street, Atlanta, Ga.
Kewanee Boiler Corporation, Kewanee, III.
Farrar & Trefts, Inc., 20 Milburn Avenue, Buffalo 12, N. Y.
Brush pens:

Charles G. Stott Co., Inc., 1310 New York Avenue NW.,

Washington 5, D. C.
Floquil Products, Inc., 1976 Broadway, New York 23, N. Y.
Butchers' supplies and equipment:

Bromann Bros., 857 Fulton Street, Chicago 7, III.

The Cincinnati Butchers' Supply Co., Helen and Blade Streets,

Cincinnati, Ohio.
The C. Schmidt Co., John and Livingston Streets, Cincinnati,

Ohio.
Can marking inks:

Charles G. Stott Co., Inc., 1310 New York Avenue NW.,

Washington 5, D. C.
Floquil Products, Inc., 1976 Broadway, New York 23, N. Y.
Kienle & Co., 33 Nassau Avenue, Brooklyn, N. Y.
California Ink Co., Inc., 545 Sansome, San Francisco, Calif.
The Superior Type Co., 1810 West Larchmont Avenue,

Chicago 13, III.
Can sealers:

Max Ams Machine Co., Scofield Avenue, Bridgeport, Conn.
Burpee Can Sealer Co., 128 West Liberty Street, Barrington,

III.
Dixie Conner Co., P. O. 1 348, Athens, Ga.
National Pressure Cooker Co., Eau Claire, Wis.
Wisconsin Aluminum Foundry Co., Inc., Sixteenth Street at

Franklin, Manitowoc, Wis.
Canning thermometers:

Manning, Maxwell & Moore, Inc., 1 1 Elias Street, Bridgeport

2, Conn.
C. J. Tagliabue Manufacturing Co., Park Avenue and Rucks

Street, Brooklyn 5, N. Y.
The Palmer Co., 2501 Norwood Avenue, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Moeller Instrument Co., One Hundred and Thirty-second

Street and Eighty-ninth Avenue, Richmond Hill 18, N. Y.
Taylor Instrument Co., Rochester 1 , N. Y.
Chain hoists:

Food Machinery Corporation, 1 01 East Maple Street, Hoopes-
ton, III.
A. K. Robins & Co., Inc., 1 1 1 Concord Street, Baltimore, Md.
Chisholm-Ryder Co., Inc., 4121 Highland Avenue, Niagara

Falls, N.Y.
Berlin Chapman Co., Berlin, Wis.

83

Combination pressure canner, cooker, and stockpot (18 No. 3
cans):
Lesion Utensils Corporation, Fortieth Avenue and Twenty-
first Street, Long Island City, N. Y.

Cooking coils:

Berlin Chapman Co., Berlin, Wis.

Chisholm-Ryder Co., Inc., 4121 Highland Avenue, Niagara

Falls, N.Y.
Food Machinery Corporation, 1 01 East Maple Street, Hoopes-

ton, III.
Hamilton Copper & Brass Works, Dixie Highway and Lincoln

Avenue, Hamilton, Ohio.
F. H. Langsenkamp Corporation, Harmon and South Streets,

Indianapolis 4, Ind.
A. K. Robins & Co., Inc., 111 Concord Street, Baltimore, Md.

Dead weight gage testers:

The Ashton Valve Co., 161-171 First Street, Cambridge,

Mass.
Crosby Steam Gage & Valve Co., 165 Broadway, New York

6, N.Y.
Star Brass Manufacturing Co., 104-114 East Dedham Street,

Boston, Mass.
Ashcroft Gauge Division, Manning, Maxwell & Moore, Inc.,

Kossuth Street, Bridgeport 2, Conn.

Factory trucks:

Berlin Chapman Co., Berlin, Wis.

Chisholm-Ryder Co., Inc., 4121 Highland Avenue, Niagara

Falls, N.Y.
Food Machinery Corporation, 1 01 East Maple Street, Hoopes-

ton, II!.
A. K. Robins & Co., Inc., 111 Concord Street, Baltimore, Md.

Food choppers and grinders,- food presses:

Enterprise Manufacturing Co., Third and Dauphin Streets,

Philadelphia, Pa.
Hobart Manufacturing Co., Troy, Ohio.
The Cincinnati Butchers' Supply Co., Helen and Blade Streets,

Cincinnati, Ohio.
Gas Burners:

Charles A. Hones, Inc., Baldwin, N. Y.

Eclipse Fuel Engineering Co., 705 South Main Street, Rock-
ford, III.
Standard Gas Equipment Corporation, Bayard and Hamburg

Streets, Baltimore, Md.
Surface Combustion Division, Grover and Sherman Streets,

Toledo, Ohio.
General canning equipment:

Anderson-Barngrover Division, Food Machinery Corporation,

San Jose, Calif.
Ayars Machine Co., North Salem, N. J.
Berlin Chapman Co., Berlin, Wis.
F. H. Langsenkamp Corporation, Harmon and South Streets,

Indianapolis 4, Ind.
A. K. Robins & Co., Inc., 1 1 1 Concord Street, Baltimore, Md.
Food Machinery Corporation, 101 EastMapleStreet,Hoopes-

ton. III.
Cox Foundry & Machine Co., 985 Cox Avenue SW., Atlanta,

Ga.
Chisholm-Ryder Co., Inc., 4121 Highland Avenue, Niagara

Falls, N.Y.
Dixie Canner Co., P. O. 1 348, Athens, Ga.

Gloves:

Dunn Products, 333 South Wood Street, Chicago 1 2, III.

Hood Rubber Co., Inc., Watertown, Mass.

Latex Glove Manufacturing Co., 813 North Wells Street,

Chicago 10, III.
Miller Rubber Co., High and Cole Streets, Akron, Ohio.
The Wilson Rubber Co., 1 248 Garfield Avenue, SW., Canton

6, Ohio.

Inspector's test gage:

The Ashton Valve Co., 161-171 First Street, Cambridge,

Mass.
Crosby Steam Gage & Valve Co., 165 Broadway, New York
6, N.Y.

Inspector's test gage — Continued

Star Brass Manufacturing Co., 104-114 East Dedham Street,

Boston, Mass.
Ashcroft Gauge Division, Manning, Maxwell & Moore, Inc.,

Kossuth Street, Bridgeport 2, Conn.
Open-process tanks:

Berlin Chapman Co., Berlin, Wis.

Chisholm-Ryder Co., Inc., 4121 Highland Avenue, Niagara

Falls, N.Y.
Food Machinery Corporation, 101 East Maple Street, Hoopes-

ton,lll.
Hamilton Copper & Brass Works, Dixie Highway and Lincoln

Avenue, Hamilton, Ohio.
F. H. Langsenkamp Corporation, Harmon and South Streets,

Indianapolis 4, Ind.
A. K. Robins & Co., Inc., 1 1 1 Concord Street, Baltimore, Md.
Pressure canners (7 and 1 4 quart):

Burpee Can Sealer Co., 128 West Liberty Street, Barrington,

III.
National Aluminum Manufacturing Co., Peoria, III.
Wisconsin Aluminum Foundry Co., Sixteenth Street at

Franklin, Manitowoc, Wis.
The National Pressure Cooker Co., Eau Claire, Wis.
Lakeside Aluminum Co., 2633 SE. Fourth Street, Minneapolis,

Minn.
The Pressure Cooker Co., 338 Broadway, Denver, Colo.
Pressure gages:

The Ashton Valve Co., 161-171 First Street, Cambridge,

Mass.
Crosby Steam Gage & Valve Co., 165 Broadway, New York

6, N. Y.
Star Brass Manufacturing Co., 104-114 East Dedham Street,

Boston, Mass.
Ashcroft Gauge Division, Manning, Maxwell & Moore, Inc.,

Kossuth Street, Bridgeport 2, Conn.
Pressure reducing valves:

Mason-Neilan Regulator Co., Pierce Square, Dorchester Sta-
tion, Boston 24, Mass.
Stickle Steam Specialties Co., 2215 Valley Avenue at

Tacoma, Indianapolis 1 , Ind.
Fisher Governor Co., 1700 Fisher Building, Marshalltown,

Iowa.
Pressure retorts:

Dixie Canner Co., P. O. 1348, Athens, Ga.

j. P. Dowell Co., McKinney, Tex.

A. K. Robins & Co., Inc., 111 Concord Street, Baltimore, Md.

Food Machinery Corporation, 101 East Maple Street,

Hoopeston, III.
Berlin Chapman Co., Berlin, Wis.
Black, Sivalls & Bryson, Inc., 2131 Westwood Boulevard,

Oklahoma City, Okla.

Retort thermometers:

Manning, Maxwell & Moore, Inc., 1 1 Elias Street, Bridgeport

2, Conn.
C. J. Tagliabue Manufacturing Co., Park Avenue and Rucks

Street, Brooklyn 5, N. Y.
The Palmer Co., 2501 Norwood Avenue, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Moeller Instrument Co., One hundred and thirty-second Street

and Eighty-ninth Avenue, Richmond Hill 18, N. Y.
Taylor Instrument Co., Rochester 1 , N. Y.
Salt tablets:

Morton Salt Co., 310 South Michigan Avenue, Chicago, III.

Diamond Crystal Salt Co., St. Clair, Mich.

Scientific Tablet Co., 1522 North Hadley Street, St. Louis,

Mo.
Steam-jacketed kettles:

Lee Metal Products Co., Inc., 368 West Pine Street, Philips-
burg, Pa.
Mangrum, Holbrook & Elkus, 301 Golden Gate Avenue,

San Francisco 2, Calif.
Bucyrus Kettle Works, Inc., 741 East Warren Street, Bucyrus,

Ohio.
Aluminum Cooking Utensil Co., Fifth Avenue and Eleventh

Street, New Kensington, Pa.

84

Steam-jacketed kettles — Continued

Legion Utensils Corporation, Fortieth Avenue and Twenty-
first Street, Long Island City, N. Y.

Tin cans:

American Can Co., New York Central Building, 230 Park

Avenue, New York 17, N. Y.
Atlas Can Corporation, 241 Wythe Avenue, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Continental Can Co., Inc., 100 East Forty-second Street, New

York 17, N. Y.
Eagle Can Co., 356 Mystic Avenue, Somerville, Mass.
Independent Can Co., 1301-1331 South Howard Street,

Baltimore, Md.
Heekin Can Co., 435 New Street, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Pacific Can Co., 290 Division Street, San Francisco, Calif.
Phillips Can Co., Cambridge, Md.
Western Can Co., Seventeenth and Rhode Island Streets, San

Francisco, Calif.
National Can Corporation, 110 East Forty-second Street,

New York 17, N. Y.
Crown Can Co., Erie Avenue at H, Philadelphia 34, Pa.
Water feed systems:

The Ohio Injector Co., 100 Ejector Street, Wadsworth, Ohio.
Penberthy Injector Co., 1242 Holden Avenue, Detroit 2,

Mich.
William Sellers & Co.,

phia, Pa.
American Injector Co.

Station, Detroit, Mich.
Hancock Valve Division, Manning, Maxwell & Moore, Inc.,

Kossuth Street, Bridgeport 2, Conn.

Inc., 1600 Hamilton Street, Philadel-
1481-1491 Fourteenth Avenue, Trix

Literature cited

(1) American Society op Mechanical Engineers.

1943. rules for construction of unfired
pressure vessels. A. S. M. E. Boiler
Construction Code. Sect. 8. 152 pp.,
illus. New York.

(2) ■

1943. suggested rules for care of power
boilers. A. S. M. E. Boiler Construc-
tion Code. Sect. 7. 65 pp. New York.

(3) Baumgartner, J. G.

1943. canned foods: an introduction to their

microbiology. 157 pp., illus. London.

(4) Black, W. H., and McComas, E. W.

1924. BEEF ON THE FARM SLAUGHTERING, CUT-
TING, curing. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farm-
ers' Bui. 1415, 33 pp., illus.

(5) Carl, F. L., and Jopling, L. K.

1945. a home canning guide. Mo. Agr. Col.
Ext. Cir. 490, 11 pp., illus. Columbia,
Mo. (Revised.)

(6) Esselen, W. B., Jr.

1944. the influence of venting on pressure

cooker performance. Jour. Home Econ.
36: 143-146.

(7) Fitzpatrick, W. H., McConnell, J. E., and

Esselen, W. B., Jr.

1945. VENTING TIMES FOR COMMUNITY CANNERY-

TYPE retorts. Canner. 101 (1, 2) :
16-18, 12-13, illus.

(8) Jarvis, N. D.

1943. PRINCIPLES AND METHODS IN THE CANNING

of fishery products. TJ. S. Fish and
Wildlife Service. Res. Rpt. 7. 366 pp.,
illus.

(9) Slocum, R. R.

1943. marketing poultry. TJ. S. Dept. Agr.
Farmers' Bui. 1377, 40 pp., illus. (Re-
vised.)

(10)

(ID
(12)

(13)
(14)

(15)

[United States] Bureau of Human Nutrition
and Home Economics.
1945. family food plans for good nutrition.
U. S. Dept, Agr. AW 1-78, illus.

1945. HOME CANNING OF MEAT. TJ. S. Dept.

Agr. AWI-110, 16 pp., illus.
[United States] Food and Drug Administration.
1944. definitions and standards for food.

Food and Drug Admin. Serv. Regulat,

Announ. Food, Drug, and Cosmetic 2,

50 pp.
[United States] War Department.

1943. cutting of beef. Tech. Manual 10-407,

70 pp., illus.
Warner, K. F.

1938. LAMB AND MUTTON ON THE FARM. U. S.

Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. 1807, 24 pp.,

illus.

1938. PORK ON THE FARM KILLING, CURING,

and canning. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farm-
ers' Bui. 1186, 38 pp., illus. (Revised.)

(1)
(2)

(3)

(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)

(9)

(10)

(ID
(12)

Additional references

American Can Company, Research Department.
1943. the canned food reference manual.
Ed. 2, 552 pp., illus. New York.

New

1944. COMMERCIAL BLANCH, FILL-IN- WEIGHT, EX-
HAUST, AND PROCESS DATA FOR CERTAIN
CANNED FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND MEATS.

16 pp. Maywood, 111. [Processed.]
Bitting, A. W.

1937. appertizing; or, the art of canning; its

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. 852 pp.,

illus. San Francisco, Calif.
Blake, E. G.

1938. closing machine adjustments. Canner

86 (26) : 12-119], illus.
Bowen, J. T.

1925. dairy engineering. 532 pp., illus.
York.
Canning Trade.

1936. a complete course in canning . . .
Ed. 6, 352 pp. Baltimore, Md.
Chenoweth, W. W.

1930. food preservation. 344 pp., illus. New
York.
Continental Can Co., Inc.

[n. d.] up-to-date methods of home canning.
Continental Can Co., Dixie Canner
Division. Bui. 14, 51 pp., illus. Athens,
Ga.
National Canners Association.

1942. processes for non-acid canned foods in
metal containers. Natl. Canners Assoc.
Bui. 26-L, 43 pp. Washington, D. C.
(Ed. 5.)

1943. FACTORS contributing to uniform heat

distribution in retorts. Natl. Can-
ners Assoc. Inform. Letter 934 (Sup.), 4
pp. Washington, D. C.
Nicol, W. C.

1944. PRESSURE VESSEL HAZARD IN FOOD PLANTS.

Fruit Prod. Jour, and Amer. Food Mfr.
24: 114-116.
Power Plant Engineering.

1923. piping for power and heating plants.
Power Plant Engin. Handbooks. 128pp.,
illus. Chicago, 111.

85

(13) SoMERS, I. I.

1944. HOW TO VENT STEAM RETORTS TO REMOVE

the air hazard. Food Indus. 16: 93-96,
164-166, illus.

(14) Stanley, L., Stienbarger, M., and Shank, D.

1942. HOME CANNING OF FRUITS, VEGETABLES, AND

meats. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui.
1762, 48 pp. (Revised.)

(15) Tanner, F. W.

1935. home canning and public health. Amer.
Jour. Pub. Health 25: 301-313, illus.

(16)

1944. the microbiology of foods. Ed. 2, 1,196
pp., illus. Champaign, 111.

(I'D Townsend, C. T.

1943. SPOILAGE IN CANNED FOODS AND ITS PRE-
VENTION. Calif. State Dept. Pub. Health,
Bur. Food, Drug and Cannery Insp. 8
pp. Sacramento, Calif.

(18) [United States] Bureau of Human Nutrition

and Home Economics.

1943. take care of pressure canners. U. S.

Dept. Agr. AWI-65. illus. (Rev. 1945)

(19)

1944. home canning of fruits and vegetables.

U. S. Dept, Agr. AWT-93, 15 pp., illus.

(20) Vacua, G. A.

1944. prevent poisoning by botulism. Health
11(7): 8-9, 24-25, illus. . Mountain
View, Calif.

86

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1946

J

.